LEARNING

 Learning can be defined as the process leading to

relatively permanent behavioral change or potential
behavioral change.

 Maturational Change

 Experiential Change
 Alter the way we perceive the environment.
 Interpret incoming stimuli

 The way we interact and behave

 John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how
the process of learning affects our behavior, and he
formed the school of thought known as Behaviorism.
 The central idea behind behaviorism is that only
observable behaviors are worthy of research
since other abstraction such as a person’s mood
or thoughts are too subjective.
 Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in
how our behavior results from the stimuli both in
the environment and within ourselves
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936).
 Russian physiologist

 Research on digestion

 Conditioning by association
 unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

 unconditioned response (UCR),

 conditioned stimulus (CS),

  conditioned response(CR).
CONDITIONING PROCESS
 Unconditional stimulus---- unconditional response
 These are unlearned and untrained

 Neutral stimulus---- conditioned stimulus

 Conditioned stimulus ----- conditioned response

PRINCIPLE OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

 Acquisition; Initial stage

 Extinction: The Decrease in frequency and eventual
disappearance of a previously conditioned response.
 Stimulus Generalization; A response to a stimulus that is
similar to but different from a conditioned stimulus,
more similar the stimuli, the more likely generalization
is to occur.
 Spontaneous recovery; The reemergence of an
extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.
 Stimulus discrimination; The ability to differentiate
between stimuli
OPERANT CONDITIONING

B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990)

Learning in which voluntary response is

strengthened or weakened, depending on
its favorable or unfavorable consequences
B. F. Skinner

•Single subject design

• Large numbers of subjects not necessary
• Statistical comparisons of group mean is not
necessary
• A single subject provides valid and replicable
results
B. F. Skinner

Operant behavior: occurs without an observable

external stimulus

Operates on the organism’s environment

The behavior is instrumental in securing a stimulus

more representative of everyday learning
 SKINNER’S THEORY

“All we need to know in order to

describe and explain behavior is this:
actions followed by good outcomes
are likely to recur , and actions
followed by bad outcomes are less
likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953)
 LABORATORY EXAMPLES

Operant Conditioning

Exploring
Scratching
Pigeon Key-pecking
Reinforcement
Grooming
Defecating
Urinating
REINFORCEMENT; THE PROCESS BY WHICH
A STIMULUS INCREASES THE PROBABILITY
THAT A PRECEDING BEHAVIOR WILL BE
REPEATED.

REINFORCER: ANY STIMULUS THAT

INCREASES THE PROBABILITY THAT A
PRECEDING BEHAVIOR WILL OCCUR AGAIN
PRIMARY REINFORCER
SECONDARY REINFORCER
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT : A STIMULUS ADDED TO THE
ENVIRONMENT THAT BRINGS ABOUT AN INCREASE IN A PRECEDING RESPONSE

NEGATIVE REINFORCER : AN UNPLEASANT STIMULUS WHOSE REMOVAL LEADS TO AN INCREASE IN THE PROBABILITY THAT PRECEDING
RESPONSE WILL OCCUR AGAIN IN THE FUTURE

PUNISHMENT: A STIMULUS THAT DECREASES THE PROBABILITY THAT PREVIOUS BEHAVIOR WILL OCCUR AGAIN

EXTINCTION. WHEN YOU REMOVE SOMETHING IN ORDER TO DECREASE A BEHAVIOR, THIS IS CALLED EXTINCTION.
B. F. Skinner

Research focus
Role of punishment in response acquisition
Schedules of reinforcement
Extinction of operant behaviour
Secondary reinforcement
Generalization
Subjects included humans as well as animals
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT : THE
FREQUENCY AND TIMING FOLLOWING
DESIRED BEHAVIOR
CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Interval schedules: reinforcement

occurs after a certain amount of time has
passed
Fixed Interval = reinforcement is
presented after a fixed amount of time
Variable Interval = reinforcement is
delivered on a random/variable time
schedule
Ratio schedules: reinforcement
occurs after a certain number of
responses
Fixed Ratio = reinforcement presented
after a fixed # of responses
Variable Ratio = reinforcement delivery
is variable but based on an overall
average # of responses
ALBERT BANDURA:
SOCIAL / OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
BANDURA’S TRIADIC MODEL OF
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

Overt Environmental
Behavior Influences

Personal Factors
(beliefs, expectations,
self-perceptions)
BASIC PREMISE

 We learn behavior through observation

 Vicarious reinforcement
MODELING

 Observe behavior of others and repeat the behavior

 Bobo doll studies (1963)

 Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through exposure

to a model
FACTORS INFLUENCING MODELING:
IMPACT TENDENCY TO IMITATE

 Characteristics of the models:

 Characteristics of observers:

 Reward consequences of behavior:

THE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
PROCESS: 4 STEPS

 Attention processes
 Retention processes

 Production processes

 Incentive and motivational processes

REINFORCEMENT IN OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
Types of Reinforcement
 Vicarious reinforcement
 Vicarious positive reinforcement
 Vicarious punishment

 Self-reinforcement
 Reward or punish self for meeting or failing to meet own
standards
APPLICATION OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY: BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
 Fears and phobias
 Guided participation: Observe and imitate
 Covert modeling: Imaginal

 Anxiety
 Fear of medical treatment
 Test anxiety