A L C T E L

SDH

Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy
 SDH
Networks

2
 SDH
Telecommunication Networks Networks

Any Telecommunication Network refers to an infrastructure

that supply the connections to communicating users.

This infrastructure generally contains network nodes and

transmission links.

Typical examples of telecommunication networks are: Public

Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Public (or Private) Data
Networks, ISDN Network, Internet.

The main function associated to the network nodes is to forward

the information to the correct destination. This purpose can be
executed by switching (exchanges) or routing (routers) systems.

3
 SDH
Telecommunication Networks Networks

Both previous systems work on a per-call-basis, which means that

for each call they have to process some information related to the
signal to locate the exact destination and then decide the best
routing (among different choices) to use to reach it.

Transmission Links provide the necessary physical capacity for a

fast and free errors transport of the information through the network.

Compared to the switching function, transmission has a great

difference: the path followed by information in the transmission
network is predefined and fixed while in a switching node the
routing is variable depending on the result of digit analysis.

4
 SDH
Telecommunication Networks Networks

Transmission doesn’t work on a per-call-basis: there is no necessity

to process any new information to establish destination and to
decide routing in a dynamic way because the path to be used
already exists being statically pre-fixed.
Transmission systems interconnect Network Nodes and/or Data
Users (generally Business Users)
Oldest transport systems are still based on PDH technology but the
trend is to replace them using equipment based on more advanced
SDH principles.
All new generation of transmission networks generally use SDH
instead of PDH because of different level of performance offered
by them.
5
 Analog Transmission SDH
Networks

Main purposes of the transmission are:

- To provide a mean for a fast and correct transport of information
(voice, data, video)
- To connect users to a network in an efficient way

Originally the telephone network treated the information in an

analogue form.
These kinds of signals are sensitive to electro-magnetic noise and
their quality decreases in proportion to the increases of the covered
distance.

As a result, long path transmissions are subject to considerable

(sometimes unacceptable) decreases in the quality of the received
signal.
6
 Digital Transmission SDH
Networks

Because digital transmission ensures better quality, it’s really

important to treat the transmitted information in a digital form.

A digital signal consists of a series of pulses that represents the

original analogue (ex. vocal) signal.

In the digital transmission the information is represented by only 2

possible values:
• ON (e.g. 5 voltage)
• OFF (e.g. 0 voltage)

When the received signal is distorted (e.g. 5V is attenuated to 4V)

the receiver can easily guess if it was On or Off, by choosing the
closest matching value.
7
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

The technique that is able to convert the telephone signal from an

analogue form into a digital one (and vice-versa) is well-known
as PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

Analogue Sampling Quantization Coding Digital

signal signal

Digital De-Coding De-Quantization Reconstruction Analogue

signal signal
Simple representation of the processes:
Analogue/Digital (A/D - modulation)
Digital/Analogue (D/A - demodulation) 8
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Analogue Sampling Quantization Coding Digital

signal signal
SAMPLING
- An analogue telephone signal (represented by a sound wave) changes
continuously in time.
- It isn’t necessary to transmit the whole signal: it can be “sampled”;
it means that the signal is measured at fixed interval times.
- If a sufficient number of “samples” is present, the original signal can
be (approximately) reconstructed without any loss of information.
- Each sampled value (s1, s2, s3…), “taken” at regular intervals, will be
subsequently transformed (quantization + coding) into an encoded
value that is transmitted to the other side by a physical link.
9
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Analogue Sampling Quantization Coding Digital

signal signal
QUANTIZATION
- The previous action of Sampling doesn’t form a digital signal yet,
because each sample can be still associated to any real number.
Only with this new step, defined “quantization”, a digital signal
is really created: each value previously sampled (s1, s2, s3…) is
now converted (with a certain precision) into an integer value (v1,
v2, v3…) that belongs to a limited set (1...256) of discrete values.
- This process produces always a small error: the digital value is an
approximation of the analog signal; this error is called
“quantization error”.
- Now each original sample is ready to be transformed (next action
is coding) into a simple sequence of 8 bits (28=256).
10
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Analogue Sampling Quantization Coding Digital

signal signal

CODING
- Before the transmission of the digital information, an action of
coding is done: each previous value (v1, v2, v3…) is converted in a
sequence of 8 bits.
- The most used codes are:
HDB3 (High Density Bipolar excess 3)
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
RZ (Return to Zero)
They use some different techniques that allow to decrease the
number of problems and detect any kind of error happened during
the physical transmission. 11
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Binary coding
100100100100..

SAMPLER QUANTISER

Example of Binary Modulation of an Analogue Signal 12

 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Binary coding
111001111101..

SAMPLER QUANTISER

Another example of Binary Modulation 13

 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

NOTES:
• The final stream of bits is only a (good) approximation of the
original analogue signal
• Only the samples are used to represent the signal while the rest
of it is not transmitted

• The amplitude (value) of each sample is represented by a code.

This code is only a (good) approximation of the real amplitude
of the signal.

However, the final differences between the original (analogue)

signal and the final (digital) one is small enough to be considered
unappreciable and not significant
14
 SDH
Pulse Code Modulation Networks

Digital Decoding De-Quantization Reconstruction Analogue

signal signal

DECODING - DEQUANTIZATION - RECONSTRUCTION

- If basic principles of transmission have been respected, the

transmitted (digital) signal received can be easily reconstructed by
several actions of demodulation:
decoding, dequantization and reconstruction are operations able to
recreate the original (analogue) sound wave signal.

15
 SDH
Notes about Frequency & Sampling Networks

The maximum frequency of the telephone signal is 3400 Hz.

To represent this information in form of samples, at least 2 x 3400

samples per second are required (according to the Sampling’s
Theorem).

If this basic condition is respected, the voice signal will be

reconstructed with a sufficient quality and a good accuracy.

In telephony applications, we take 8000 samples per second,

which means one sample in every 125sec (1sec/8000).
Then it is converted into a byte.

As a result, the digital telephone signal is represented by a bitrate=

8bit/125sec that is equivalent to 64.000 bit per second (64kbit/s)

16
 SDH
Notes about Bit-Rates Networks

It is clear that if we use a greater number of bits, we could have a

better quality and accuracy for our signal, but increasing the number
of bits to be transmitted automatically means that more information
must be carried ==> it costs money!
The telecom community agreed for the 64kbit/s solution that doesn’t
allow a perfect audio-quality but it is enough to distinguish and to
understand the voices of the people involved in a phone call.
As a comparison, an audio CD signal uses 44.100 samples for
second (instead of 8.000), each 16 bit precision (instead of 8) and
two different channels to provide stereo functionality.
It is well-known to everybody that a CD sound quality is much
better than a phone-line, but the price for this level of performances
is that it is necessary to handle 1.411 Mb/s for the CD instead of
only 64 kb/s requested by a telephone line!
17
 SDH
Multiplexing Networks

Multiplexing is a technique to combine a number of lower-speed

signals onto a single higher-speed signal.
It is like a road with 4 lanes at 30 Km/h being converted into a
single lane at 120 Km/h.
The most famous example is offered by E1 structure: 32 voice
channels of 64 kb/s are multiplexed into a unique 2.048 Mb/s
signal.
The complementary mirror function is called De-Multiplexing:
the single higher-speed signal is decomposed onto its component
lower-speed signals.
A very important aspect of multiplexing is that each composing
signal has a dedicated space in the multiplexed signal: the
bandwidth capacity is unchanged after a multiplexing process!
18
 SDH
Multiplexing Networks

Multiplexing offers an economic and efficient way to carry

multiple communication information generated by several sources
on the same physical carrier: in this way, the costs will be reduced
because they can share the same common resources (carriers).
Without multiplexing, each communication needs a separate (and
dedicated) physical link.

For a physical carrier having a size=N*MB (where MB is the

maximum bandwidth) N single communications are allowed.
There are three most used techniques of multiplexing:
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
19
 SDH
Time Division Multiplexing Networks

- In the TDM technique each individual information is sent

sequentially (one after the other)

- In the FDM each individual information is sent at the same time but

at different carrier frequencies

- In the CDMA each individual information is sent at the same time

and also at same frequency band but it is scrambled with different
encryption codes.

In the telephone networks is generally used TDM technique.

20
 SDH
Time Division Multiplexing Networks

Time Division Multiplexing is a transmission system in which

many communications are multiplexed (in sequential order, one
after the other) onto one single carrier.
At each communication is assigned a different slice of time, defined
“time-slot”, where is transported the digital value of the signal
related to that communication.
On both sides involved in the transmission, several dedicated
devices are equipped to process (write or read) the information for
each single time-slot or channel (related to 1 communication).
A “Frame” is a structure composed of a sequence including some
consecutive time-slots. It has a “duration” (ex. 125sec) that
represents the time period between two consecutive time-slots
carrying the samples related to the same signal.
21
 Time Division Multiplexing SDH
Networks

Signal 1 1 1

Signal 2 2 2

Signal 3 3 3

Signal n n n

1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n ...

Time-Slot Frame time

In any frame, the position of each single timeslot can be identified
by reference to a particular frame alignment indicator (fixed pattern)
located into a predefined position (ex: first) of frame.
22
 SDH
Interleaving “Bit” or “Byte” Networks

Two different multiplexing procedures exist, according to the

amount of time spent per input channel.

If the time-slot accomodates one complete byte of the input signal,

the multiplexed output signal is termed “byte interleaved”.

Alternately, in the “bit interleaved” strategy, in each time-slot the

multiplexed signal contains just one single bit of the input signal.

23
 SDH
“Bit” or “Byte” Interleaving Networks

channel1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1

channel2 a2 b2 c2 d2 e2 f2 g2 h2

channel3 a3 b3 c3 d3 e3 f3 g3 h3

channel8 a8 b8 c8 d8 e8 f8 g8 h8
8 bit = 1 byte
Bit Interleaving
-- a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 -- --
Time-slot

Byte Interleaving
-- a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1 a2 b2 c2 d2 e2 f2 g2 h2 -- --
Time-slot
24
 SDH
Synchronization Networks

To be able to reconstruct exactly the information at the receiver

side, a synchronization sub-system is absolutely requested.

In other words, digital switching requires that all incoming digital

frames are managed at the same frequency, supplied by a unique
clock; in this way, internally they will have all the same “phase”.

Digital frames Synchronization

Sub-system Matrix for
Digital Switching

Digital exchange
Clock

25
 SDH
Frame Alignment Networks

It is the mechanism used to recover the right frame structure from

the received stream.
It is generally based on the use of fixed synchronization pattern
(flags) in the initial positions of the frame
S
Y
N
Pat Pat C S Pat Pat
H U
Pat Pat R B
O S
Pat Pat
N Y
I S
Z T
A E
T M
Pat Pat I Pat Pat
O
N
Incoming digital frames Synchronized digital frames
26
 SDH
PCM Frame Networks

The typical PCM frame has a bit rate equal to 2 Mb/s composed
of 32 channels at 8 bits every 125 microseconds.
The channel 0 is used for frame synchronization, the channel 16 is
usually used for signalling purposes while all the other channels
(1..15 and 17..31) are available for speech conversations.

1 frame = 256 bits (125 microseconds) - bit rate = 2048 kb/s

Channel 0 1 15 16 17 31

Speech channels from 1 to 15 Speech channels from 17 to 31

8 bits in each time-slot

Frame Synchronization channel

Signalling channel

27
 SDH
Plesiochronous & Synchronous signals Networks

We have two different kinds of signals in a network.

Signals are called Plesiochronous if they have the same nominal

frequency (ex. 2,048 Mb/s). So they have “almost” the same
frequency; however any variation is restricted between specified
limits.
Two signals originated by two different clocks are usually
plesiochronous (because they are not fully synchronized).

Signals are called Synchronous if they have exactly the same

frequency.
Two signals originated by a unique clock (master-clock ) can be
synchronous.
28
 SDH
(De)Multiplexing Plesiochronous Networks

140 Mbps 140 Mbps

34Mbps 8Mbps 2Mbps 2Mbps 8Mbps 34Mbps
8/2 2/8
34 / 8 8 / 34

140 / 34 34 / 140

64 x 2Mbps

An important limit of Plesiochronous world is that for adding or dropping

a tributary signal to/from a line carrying higher order signals, are often
requested several steps of multiplexing/de-multiplexing.
29
 SDH
(De)Multiplexing Plesiochronous Networks

8/2 2/8
34 / 8 8 / 34

140 / 34 34 / 140

The figure shows a back-to-back (de)multiplexing structure.

In a PDH system the procedure to extract (drop) a tributary signal of 2 Mb/s
includes some steps of de-multiplexing:
1. Incoming 140 Mb/s signal has to be de-multiplexed: 4x34 Mb/s signal can be
dropped from it;
2. Each signal of 34 Mb/s has to be de-multiplexed: 4x8 Mb/s are extracted;
3. Each signal of 8 Mb/s has to be de-multiplexed: 4x2 Mb/s are finally dropped.
In the same way, if we want to insert (add) a tributary signal into an higher order
signal the reverse procedure must be executed. So, starting from a 2 Mb/s signal,
3 different steps of multiplexing are needed to insert it in a 140 Mb/s signal. 30
 SDH
Disadvantages of PDH Networks

To realize the add/drop functions, we need a series of

multiplexers/de-multiplexers that have to be installed in the
involved network nodes.
This solution (with PDH multiplexing structures) has a lot of
disadvantages:
- expensive & not flexible => a fixed installation of many
equipment must be executed:
an eventual reconfiguration of
the network requires changes
of the installed equipment
- loss of quality => many processes increase probability of faults
and errors

31
 SDH
Evolution towards SDH: SYNTRAN Networks

• In the 1970s: SYNTRAN (Synchronous Transport)

– Synchronous system used for multiplexing of 28 tributaries

signals at 1,544 Mb/s, for a total bit-rate of 45 Mb/s.

– This system was unstable because of frame slip originated by

accidental and unsolvable problems in the distribution of
synchronization clock.

– For this reason the project was put aside very soon.

32
 SDH
Evolution towards SDH: SONET Networks

• In the 1980s : SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)

– Synchronous system, based on optical fibers and projected by
BELLCORE for North America’s market.

– SONET solves the problem of phase-slipping by using a very

flexible data structure: the “pointers”.

– CCITT accepted the main concepts of this system of

transmission, then it made some slight changes and officially
defined a global system, suitable for all world markets:
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) was generated starting
from SONET system from which it defers only for unessential
details but not for the main characteristics and rules
33
 SDH
SDH Networks

• June 1988: CCITT defines the Synchronous Digital

Hierarchy (SDH)

CCITT (Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and

Telephone) was an international organization that defined a
series of recommendations and indications about standards for
telecommunication world.
Since 1993, all CCITT Recommendations have been transferred
under supervision of ITU-T (International Telecommunication
Union - Telecommunication) an organization related to O.N.U.
SDH was defined by CCITT in some Recommendations (G.707,
G.708 and G.709).

34
 SDH
Multiplexing Synchronous Networks

In the SDH transmission network all resources are synchronized by

an unique master-clock.
So it’s possible to assemble higher order frames (and vice-versa) by
byte interleaving instead of bit interleaving as it happens in PDH
networks.
We can now directly add/drop lower order signals into/from higher
order signals avoiding many processes of (de)multiplexing.
The device allowing this feature is defined ADD/DROP multiplexer.

140 Mbps 140 Mbps

ADD/DROP
Multiplexer

Add Drop
Lower order signal
35
 SDH
Advantages of SDH Networks

SDH allows:
• To define a world standardization: it uses a unique worldwide
hierarchy and it supports very high bit rates (155/622/... Mb/s)
• To manage also all existing PDH signals (2/8/34/45/140 Mb/s)
• To apply directly the “Drop-Insert” and “Cross-Connection”
functions: so a lower number of equipment is needed and a great
flexibility is allowed, decreasing the global costs of the
transmission networks
• To implement some “Automatic Traffic Protection” functions
• To execute advanced actions of Network Management, OAM,
Supervision and Remote Control
• To have full compatibility among equipment of different
typologies and manufacturers
• To use powerfully optical fiber properties and capacities
36
 SDH
SONET/SDH paths Networks

MULTIPLEXER
REGENERATOR MULTIPLEXER RIGENERATORE MULTIPLEXER
SOURCE
DESTINATARIO
LINE
SONET frame is a block of 810 bytes sent out in a period of 125s. SONET is a
synchronous system; so the packets are sent with useful data or empty. In this way
8x810=6480 bit are transmitted 8000 time per second, for a total data rate = 51,84 Mbps.
This is the SONET basic frame and it is called STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal - 1)
SDH frame is a block of 2430 bytes sent out in a period of 125 s. So 8x2430=19440 bit are
transmitted 8000 time per second, and the total data rate is 155,520 Mbps.
This is SDH basic frame and it is called STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module - 1)

ALL SONET SIGNALS (STS-N) ARE MULTIPLE OF STS-1

ALL SDH SIGNALS (STM-N) ARE MULTIPLE OF STM-1
37
 SDH
Differences between SONET & SDH Networks

Main differences between SONET e SDH are:

• the frequencies of basic frame: 51,84 Mbps for SONET and 155,52 Mbps for SDH
• SONET was projected only for optical fibres while SDH can also use coaxial cables
and radio links

SONET SDH Data Rate (Mb/s)

Total Payload
STS-1 51,84 50,112
STS-3 STM-1 155,52 150,336
STS-9 STM-3 466,56 451,008
STS-12 STM-4 622,08 601,344
STS-24 STM-8 1244,16 1202,688
STS-48 STM-16 2488,32 2405,376
STS-192 STM-64 9953,28 9621,504

Multiplexing Rates for SONET and SDH

38
 SDH
SDH Hierarchies Networks

Starting from basic frame STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module-

1) is possible to define all higher order signals STM-N
(Synchronous Transport Module - level N).
Any STM-N (N1) signal is always multiple of basic frame STM-1
The Bit rates are:
for STM-1: 9x270x8x8000x1=155,52 Mb/s
for STM-N: 9x270x8x8000xN=155,52xN Mb/s

Level Bit Rates (Mbps)

STM-1 155,52
STM-4 622,08
STM-8 1244,16
STM-16 2488,32
STM-64 9953,28
Bit Rates for different signals SDH 39
 SDH
STM-1 Frame Structure Networks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 --- --- 269 270

1
2
3
4 OVERHEAD PAYLOAD
5 SUBMATRIX SUBMATRIX
6
7
8
9
s
Main characteristics of basic frame (matrix) STM-1:
- capacity: 9x270 bytes = 2430 bytes;
- period: 125 sec;
- bit rate: 155,520 Mbit/s (2430 x 8 bit x 8000 - every 125 sec);
- payload: 150,336 Mbit/s (2430-81=2349 x 8 bit x 8000 - every 125 sec)

Transmission is executed row by row starting from the top left

corner (byte 1,1)
40
 SDH
Higher order signals STM-N Networks

SDH also defines higher order frames (STM-N with N>1)

Generally any STM-N frame include:
- overhead: 9 rows x 9 bytes x N
- payload: 9 rows x 261 bytes x N

Bit rates of these frames are multiple of 155,520 Mbit/s

Actually are defined (and used) STM-4, STM-16 and STM-64.
It is possible that, in the future, some higher rates corresponding to value of N
larger than 64 will be defined and used when the network operators need them
and technology allows.

All STM-N frames have a period of 125 sec.

41
 SDH
Network Architecture Networks

MUX SDH REGENER MUX SDH MUX SDH

REGENERATOR REGENERATOR REGENERATOR

SECTION (RSOH) SECTION (RSOH) SECTION (RSOH)

MULTIPLEX MULTIPLEX
SECTION (MSOH) SECTION (MSOH)

PATH

42
 SDH
Network Architecture Networks

Any SDH transmission network is handled as a layered structure:

Three different levels are defined:
- Path layer
- Multiplex Section layer
- Regenerator Section layer
STM-N frame contains different kinds of overhead information, used for
operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning (OAM&P)
Layered structure allows to divide overhead information into different blocks
inside the STM-N frame. So each different type of equipment has direct access
to own information, avoiding to read and deal all other meaningless bytes.
• Path Layer overhead carries information related to a specific signal and its
path through the network.
• Multiplex Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication
between multiplexers.
• Regenerator Section Layer overhead carries information for the
communication between regenerators.
43
 SDH
PAYLOAD Submatrix Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 --- --- 269 270
1
2
3
4 OVERHEAD PAYLOAD
5 SUBMATRIX SUBMATRIX
6
7
8
9

• Payload submatrix (9x261) includes all digital frames (=Data) that SDH multiplexer
assembles starting from tributaries flows.
• To balance eventual frequency and/or phase variation, the start position of these
structures can float within a determinate range into several payload submatrix belonging
to consecutive frames.
• Each change of position is easy located by using some very flexible data structures:
==> POINTERS
• All digital structures contained in a payload (containers, virtual containers, tributary
units, tributary unit groups, administrative units, administrative unit groups) are used
to form a STM-1 frame, in according to fixed hierarchical rules
44
 SDH
OVERHEAD Submatrix Networks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 --- --- 269 270

1
2
3
4 OVERHEAD PAYLOAD
5 SUBMATRIX SUBMATRIX
6
7
8
9

• Overhead submatrix (9x9) includes not data but some other auxiliary information related
to several very important functions as: frame alignment, error monitoring, alarm
indications, service channels for maintenance purposes, engineering order wire, data
channels, Automatic Protection Switching (APS) functions, etc.

• It is composed of 2 different blocks:

- SOH (Section OverHead), including rows 1,2,3 (RSOH) and 5,6,7,8,9 (MSOH);
- AUOH (Administrative Unit OverHead), including row 4 (AU_Ptr).
45
 SDH
OverHead Structure Networks

1
RSOH
2 Regenerator Section Overhead
3

4 AU PTR Administrative Unit Pointers SOH

5 Section
6 Overhead
MSOH
7 Multiplexer Section Overhead
8

46
 SDH
Synchronous Transport Module Networks

RSOH
AU PTR PAYLOAD STM
MSOH

Path
OverHead P
O Higher order
P H container
P O Higher order P
H order container Higher order
O Higher O Higher order
containers
H container H container

P P
O Lower order O Lower order Lower order
P H container P H container container
O Lower order O Lower order
H container H container

47
 SDH
Containers and Virtual Containers Networks

CONTAINER (C)
Before to be transported in the SDH transmission network a signal is placed
into an elementary structure called Container (C-x). To fit the different types of
plesiochronous signals, several kinds of containers have been defined:
Name Bit-rate (Mbps)
C-11 1,544
C-12 2,048
C-2 6,312
C-3 34,368 -- 44,736
C-4 139,264
VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)
When a container C-x is associated to a structure called POH (Path OverHead);
from this association arises the Virtual Container. Virtual Containers (VC-x)
are so called because they are logical and not physical entities.
P We have 5 types of VCs: VC-11, VC-12, VC-2, VC-3, VC-4
Container
O They can be divided into Lower Order VC (VC-11, VC-12,
H C-x
VC-2) and Higher Order VC (VC-3, VC-4)
Virtual Container
48
 SDH
Tributary Unit Networks

TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU)

A Tributary Unit (TU-x) consists of a lower order Virtual Container plus a
Tributary Unit Pointer (TU-PTR) that allows the asynchronous alignment of the
signal.
Types of Tributary Units are: TU-11, TU-12, TU-2, TU-3, corresponding to
respective Virtual Containers and their associated TU pointers.

TU PTR

P
O Lower order
H container

Tributary Unit

49
 SDH
Tributary Unit Group Networks

TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG)

A Tributary Unit Group (TUG) is composed of one or more Tributary Unit
inserted in fixed and predefined positions in a higher order VC payload.
Grouping some different TUs into the same TUG is a classic action of
“multiplexing”.
In a specific TUG-x is possible to insert only TUs of the same type.
Two different kinds of TUGs are: TUG-2 and TUG-3.
A TUG-2 consists of a homogenous assembly of 3 TU-12 or of a single TU-2.
A TUG-3 consists of a homogenous assembly of 7 TUG-2 or of a single TU-3.

TU-12 TU-12
PTR PTR VC-12 VC-12

TUG-2 composed of 3 TU-12

50
 SDH
Administrative Unit Networks

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT (AU)

An Administrative Unit (AU) consists of a higher order VC and an AU Pointer
that allows a new action of alignment.

Two different kinds of AUs are: AU-3 and AU-4, corresponding to respective
Virtual Containers and their associated AU pointers.

P
AU PTR O Higher order
H container

Administrative Unit

51
 SDH
Administrative Unit Group Networks

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP (AUG)

An Administrative Unit Group (AUG) composed of one or more
Administrative Unit inserted in fixed and predefined positions in the STM-N
frame.
Grouping some different AUs into the same AUG is a “multiplexing” action.
In a specific AUG-x is possible to insert only AUs of the same kind.
Two different kinds of AUGs are: AUG-3 and AUG-4.
An AUG-3 consists of a homogenous assembly of 3 identical AU-3 while an a
AUG-4 contains a single AU-4.
In an AUG-3 (non ETSI structure) 3 pointers AU3_Ptr are associated to
respective 3 VC-3 while an AUG-4 is formed by a couple AU4_Ptr & VC4.

AU-3 AU-3 AU-3

PTR PTR PTR VC-3 VC-3 VC-3

Administrative Unit Group - AUG3 52

 SDH
STM-1 Frame Networks

STM FRAME

Frame STM-1 is finally compound adding to a complete AUG4 (composed of a

payload + row#4 of the Overhead) the 2 sections RSOH (rows 1,2,3) and
MSOH (rows 5,6,7,8,9) of the OverHead Submatrix.

Eventual higher order frames (STM-N) can be easily obtained concatenating N

groups (AUG4). Each of them has an own overhead (of size 9x9).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 --- --- 269 270

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

STM-1 Frame
53
 SDH
CCITT/ITU Multiplexing Structure Networks

139,264Mbps
xN x1
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4
x3 x1
TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3 44,736Mbps
x3 34,368Mbps
x7
AU-3 C-3
VC-3
x1
x7 TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2

x3 2,048Mbps
Multiplexing
TU-12 VC-12 C-12
Aligning (+TUx_ptr or +AU4_ptr)
x4
1,544Mbps
Pointer processing
TU-11 VC-11 C-11
Mapping (+VCx_POH)

54
 SDH
ETSI multiplexing structure
(*)
Networks

139,264Mbps
xN x1
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4
x3 x1
TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3 44,736Mbps
34,368Mbps
C-3
x7
x1
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
Multiplexing
x3 2,048Mbps
Aligning (+TUx_ptr or +AU4_ptr)
TU-12 VC-12 C-12
Pointer processing
1,544Mbps
Mapping (+VCx_POH)
VC-11 C-11

(*)
European Telecommunication Standards Institute
55
 SDH
Reduced structure Networks

139,264Mbps
xN x1
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4
x3 x1
TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3 44,736Mbps
34,368Mbps
C-3
x7

TUG-2

Multiplexing x3 2,048Mbps

Aligning (+TUx_ptr or +AU4_ptr) TU-12 VC-12 C-12

Pointer processing

Mapping (+VCx_POH)

56
 SDH
SDH structure description Networks

- Tributary signal is placed into a Container Cx:

 C12 = 2,048 Mb/s

 C3 = 34,368 Mb/s
 C4 = 139,264 Mb/s

- A POH (of data) is added to the container by an action of “mapping”.

So a Virtual Container VCx is generated:

 VC12 = C12 + VC12POH

 VC3 = C3 + VC3POH
 VC4 = C4 + VC4POH

It will be inserted into the SDH Frame Payload Area

57
 SDH
SDH structure description(2) Networks

- Now using a pointer (TUx-Ptr) is executed an “alignment”, that is a process

used to synchronize the digital frames

 TU12 = VC12 + TU12Ptr

 TU3 = VC3 + TU3Ptr
 TU4 = can’t be defined because a VC4 isn’t inserted into any higher
order containers

- Grouping in a physical sequence, some pointers (TUx-Ptr) and the respective

Virtual Containers (VCx), a “multiplexing” action is executed. It generates a:

 TUG2 = 3 TU12

58
 SDH
SDH structure description(3) Networks

- A new “multiplexing” is performed on a single TU3 or on 7 TUG2 (byte

interleaved). It gives rise to:

 TUG3 = 1 TU3
 TUG3 = 7 TUG2

- Grouping 3 TUG3, adding to them a VC4POH and multiplexing, we have:

 VC4 = 3 TUG3 + 1 VC4POH

Remark A VC4 can be obtained also in a direct way adding a VC4POH to a C4

59
 SDH
SDH structure description(4) Networks

- Now using a second pointer (AU4-Ptr) a new “alignment” is performed.

It creates an:

 AU4 = VC4 + AU4Ptr

- Putting the Pointer (AU4-Ptr) near to the associated Virtual Container

(VC4),
a simple action of “multiplexing” is executed. It generates an:

 AUG4 = 1 AU4

60
 SDH
SDH structure description(5) Networks

- Joining an AUG4 with a SOH (RSOH+MSOH), the SDH final frame is so

generated:

 STM-1 = AUG4 + SOH (RSOH+MSOH)

- Higher order frames (STM-N N>1) is so performed:

 STM-1 = matrix [9x(1x9)] SOH + [9x(1x261)] - 1 single AUG4

 STM-4 = matrix [9x(4x9)] SOH + [9x(4x261)] - 4 consecutive AUG4
 STM-16 = matrix [9x(16x9)] SOH + [9x(16x261)] - 16 consecutive
AUG4
………..
 STM-N = matrix [9x(Nx9)] SOH + [9x(Nx261)] - N consecutive
AUG4

61
 SDH
Section OverHead Networks

1
RSOH
2 Regenerator Section Overhead
3

4 SOH
5 Section
6 Overhead
MSOH
7 Multiplexer Section Overhead
8

62
 SDH
RSOH Bytes Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A1-A2 (Framing bytes): used for frame
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1
alignment: so each frame always starts
with a prefixed sequence of six bytes.
B1 E1 F1 X X 2 The receiver can easy identify the header
D1 D2 D3 3 of each new signal.
4
A1=11110110 --- A2=00101000
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5 J0 (Regenerator Section Trace): reserved
D4 D5 D6 6 for future purposes. In earlier versions of
the recommendations, this byte was
D7 D8 D9 7
marked as C1 and its purpose was to
D10 D11 D12 8 identify the interleaved STM-1 stream
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9 inside the STM-N frame
SCRAMBLING: Before to be transmitted by a physical link, a complete and assembled
STM-N frame (except RSOH first row), is always “scrambled”. Scrambling action is
performed to assure an acceptable transition density (ex. a good density of 1’s is
maintained in the signal) that is important for transmission on many kinds of media, as
optical fibres. For scrambling is generally used a “scrambler” based on polynomial
6 7
algorithm: 1+x +x .
At receiver side, each frame is “descrambled” for restoring the original sequence.
63
RSOH first row isn’t scrambled because it contains bytes locating frame’s beginning.
 SDH
RSOH Bytes(2) Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1
E1 (Engineering Order Wire): it is used
E1 F1 by maintenance people for voice
B1 X X 2 communication.
D1 D2 D3 3 It uses only 1 byte of RSOH: so, the
4
available telephone channel is at 64 kb/s
and it is operative only between
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5 “regenerators”.
D4 D5 D6 6
F1 (User Channel): similar to the E1 byte
D7 D8 D9 7 it is also used for voice or data
D10 D11 D12 8 communication (ex. Call at 64 kb/s
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9
between operators when a physical alarm
condition occurs)
B1 [BIP-8] (Error Monitoring): the error monitoring function used this byte B1 to apply the
Bit Interleaved Parity 8 [BIP-8] for calculating the error rate at regenerator level.
When a frame is sent: this parity byte is calculated over all bits of the previous STM-N
frame before scrambling and it’s placed into B1 of the actual frame before scrambling.
When a frame is received: BIP-8 is recalculated over all bits of the frame and compared
with the B1 received value: if they are different, a transmission error has been detected!
64
 SDH
BIP-N Technique Networks

[BIP-N] Bit Interleaved Parity N is a technique frequently used in SDH network for
error control. It acts according to this principle:
The entire blocks of (MxN) binary digits that must be transmitted (and controlled)
is divided into M strings each containing N digits.
On the first digit of each string is executed the classic “parity bit control”.
The same action is repeated for each position (second, third…last).
Finally a new N-bit string Y is so obtained [BIP-N string].
In it each bit Yj has a value so calculated:
• if the number of bit in position “j” (calculated over all M blocks) is even: Y j = 0
• if X
the X12 of
11 number Xposition
…..bit in 1j X1n
….. “j” (calculated over all M blocks) is odd: Y j = 1
X21 X22 ….. X2j ….. X2n
…… ….. …… ….. …...

Xi1 Xi2 ….. Xij ….. Xin

…… ….. …… …...

Xm1 Xm2 ….. Xmj ….. Xmn

BIP-N string
65
 SDH
RSOH Bytes(3) Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1
D1 - D2 - D3 (Data Communication
E1 F1 Channel): these 3 bytes, having a total bit
B1 X X 2 rate of 192 kbps, carry data messages
D1 D2 D3 3 between regenerators and equipment of
4
section.
They can be used for alarms, maintenance,
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5
monitoring, administration by advanced
D4 D5 D6 6 Operation System Supervisors (OSS,
D7 D8 D9 7 TMN, etc.)
D10 D11 D12 8 X (Reserved for National Usage): each
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9 national telecom operator can decide
their meaning and use

66
 SDH
MSOH Bytes Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B2 (Error Monitoring): very similar to byte
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 B1 of RSOH, these 3 bytes are used for
B1 E1 F1 X X 2 calculating the error rate but at multiplexer
D1 D2 level.
D3 3
When a new frame is sent: these parity bytes
4 are calculated over all bits of the previous
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5 STM-N frame (except RSOH) before
scrambling and they are placed into B2 bytes
D4 D5 D6 6
of the actual frame before scrambling.
D7 D8 D9 7 When a frame is received: BIP-24 is
D10 D11D12 8 recalculated over all bits of the frame and
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X compared with the B2 received values: if
X 9
they are different, a transmission error has
been detected!

K1 - K2 (Automatic Protection Switching): they control the APS function on a set of

multiplexer sections forming a “protection group”.
They are involved in the transmission of AIS & RDI alarm indication (see later)

67
 SDH
MSOH Bytes(2) Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X D4-D12 (Data Communication Channel):
1
very similar to bytes D1, D2, D3 of
B1 E1 F1 X X 2 RSOH, these 9 bytes, having a total bit
D1 D2 D3 3 rate of 576 kb/s, carry data messages
between multiplexers.
4
They can be used for alarms, maintenance,
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5 monitoring, administration by advanced
D4 D5 D6 6 Operation System Supervisors (OSS,
TMN, etc.)
D7 D8 D9 7
D10 D11D12 M1: this byte carries the REI (Remote
8
Error Indication) of multiplex section.
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9 It contains the number of errored blocks
that were detected by calculation based
on received B2 bytes (see later)

E2 (Engineering Order Wire): similar to byte E1 of RSOH, it is used by maintenance

people for voice communication.
It uses only 1 byte of MSOH: so, the available telephone channel is at 64 kbit/s and it is
operative only between “multiplexers”.
68
 SDH
MSOH Bytes(3) Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
S1 (Syncronization Status Message): the
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 bits 5,6,7,8 of this byte are used to carry the
B1 E1 F1 information related to synchronization.
X X 2
Recommendations indicate six different
D1 D2 D3 3 types of synchronization having a specific
4 meaning about “quality”:
• Quality PRC (Primary Reference Clock
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5
G.811) => bit = 0010
D4 D5 D6 6 • Quality SSU-T (Synchronization Supply
D7 D8 D9 7 Unit Transit node G.812T) => bit = 0100
D10 D11D12 8 • Quality SSU-L (Synchronization Supply
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9
Unit Local node G.812L) => bit = 1000
• Quality SEC (Synchronous Equipment
Clock G.813) => bit = 1011
• UNKNOWN => bit = 0000
• DON’T USE => bit = 1111
Z1 e Z2: bytes not defined yet
X (Reserved for National Usage): each national telecom operator can decide their
meaning and use
69
 SDH
B2 & REI Networks

STM-1 (with B2)

MUX Tx MUX Rx
STM-1 (with M1-REI)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 Byte M1 carries the Remote Error
B1 E1 F1 X X 2 Indication (REI).
D1 D2 D3 3
It contains the number of errored
4
5 blocks that were detected by
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6 6 calculation based on received B2
D7 D8 D9 7
bytes (related to the previous frame).
D10 D11 D12 8
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9

70
 SDH
AIS & RDI Networks

AIS
MUX Tx MUX Rx
RDI
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The bits 6,7,8 of byte K2 belonging to
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 MSOH can carry the signals RDI
B1 E1 F1 X X 2 (Remote Defect Indication) or AIS
D1 D2 D3 3 (Alarm Indication Signal).
4 RDI signal is sent towards the transmit
5 end to indicate that the receiving end
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
has detected an incoming section
D4 D5 D6 6
failure or to give an “ack” message to a
D7 D8 D9 7
previous received AIS signal.
D10 D11 D12 8
The related configurations of bits are:
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9
• RDI = 110
• AIS = 111
71
 SDH
Protection Switching Networks

Main purpose of protection switching is to safeguard the network against

cable cuts, breakdown of the optical interface and failure in the multiplex
section terminating circuitry.

N “working multiplex sections” are generally associated to one “protection

multiplex section”, so forming a 1:N Multiplex Section Protection Group.

SDH networks mainly use the 1:1 protection mechanism.

Automatic Protection Switching ability of the SDH networks is considered

as a very important feature because it increases global reliability and
security.

72
 SDH
Protection Switching (2)
Networks

A simple configuration is showed in the next slides where two identical

rings of fibres form a network: a fibre (ex. clockwise) plays the rule of
“Active” while the other one (acting in the opposite direction) represents
the “Protection” ring.

Each signal is transmitted on both fibers but the receiver drops the
information only from the active ring. When a problem occurs (a link
crashes) in the active ring the affected receivers automatically switch,
extracting the signal from the other one.

73
 SDH
Automatic Protection Switching Networks
Active Fibre

Protection Fibre

Transmitter Transmitter

Receiver Receiver

MUX A MUX B

Tr. Rec.
74
MUX C
 Automatic Protection Switching(2) SDH
Networks
Active Fibre

Protection Fibre

Transmitter Transmitter

Receiver Receiver

MUX A MUX B

Failure on Active
link between A and C

Tr. Rec.
MUX C 75
 SDH
Pointers Networks

In a SDH frame a fixed number of bytes is associated to each kind of

structure: for example, 32 bytes are assigned to represent a VC12 (=2,048
Mb/s) in the 125 msec time period.

This number of bytes is only “nominally” correct because in the network the
phase of an incoming 2,048 Mb/s is not exact but only “approximately” equal
to this value.

To solve the problem of any phase variation, SDH includes a mechanism that
allows to move the signal information inside the frame.

This mechanism is called “Justification” and it is based on very flexible data

structure: the “Pointers”.

76
 SDH
Pointers(2) Networks

They allow to identify in an unambiguous way the right position of each

signal (VCx) within the payload area.

Moreover, a signal can easily float backwards and forwards inside the payload
submatrix of a frame to balance little phase oscillations!

So all types of signals can be easily located and directly accessed through the
pointers.

For example the Administrative Unit Pointer (AU-PTR) allows to locate the
(floating) position of a VC-3 or a VC-4 inside a frame by a very flexible and
dynamic procedure.

77
 SDH
Pointers(3) Networks

It is possible to use a “positive justification” or a “negative justification” to

balance any variation of phase (incoming signal speed is slower or faster
than internal one), that it is really handled by a change of VC position
forwards or backwards inside of payload area.

This pointer mechanism and the simple (but general) multiplexing structure
represent two of the most important characteristics of SDH and the main
reasons of its world-wide success.

Two different kinds of pointers are used:

• AU Pointers (AU-PTR)
• TU Pointers (TU-PTR)

78
 SDH
AU Pointers Networks

Two kinds of AU-PTR are provided: AU-3 Pointer and AU-4 Pointer.

Both fill the space in the fourth row of Header STM Frame, between the
RSOH (rows 1,2,3) and MSOH (rows 5,6,7,8,9).

They are composed of 3 different kinds of bytes: H1, H2 and H3.

If the payload contains three VC-3s, then the Pointer Area (=row 4)
contains exactly 3 AU-3 Pointers (one for each VC-3).
In this case, each pointer (H1H2H3) operates in an autonomous way.

If the payload instead includes one VC-4, then the Pointer Area contains
only the AU-4 Pointer related to the Virtual Container.

REMARK: the structure including 3 VC-3/AU-3 inserted in a single AUG

isn’t used in the European Standard (ETSI) but it is defined in the
CCITT/ITU-T standards.
79
 SDH
AU3-PTR structure (not ETSI) Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
H1-H2: are bytes operating together as a
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 16-bit word:
B1 E1 F1 X X 2
- bits 1-4: New Data Flag, used for the
resynchronization request management
D1 D2 D3 3 - bits 5-6: Specify the AU type
H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 4 - bits 7-16: carry the AU-PTR value;
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5
it represents the offset between the AU
pointer position and the first byte of the
D4 D5 D6 6 associated higher order VC-X
D7 D8 D9 7 H3: are used only in case of “negative
D10 D11 D12 8
justification” for hosting some bytes of
payload (the VCx starting position is
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9
withdrawn inside the STM frame).
REMARK: Because the Payload submatrix
can accommodate until three AU-3
structures, the position of each of them is
VC-3 driven by a different triple of bytes.
So, the pointer configuration (row 4) is:
H1H1H1H2H2H2H3H3H3
80
 SDH
AU4-PTR structure Networks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
H1-H2: are bytes operating together as a
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X 1 16-bit word:
B1 E1 F1 X X 2
- bits 1-4: New Data Flag, used for the
resynchronization request management
D1 D2 D3 3 - bits 5-6: Specify the AU type
H1 Y Y H2 U U H3 H3 H3 4 - bits 7-16: carry the AU-PTR value;
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 5
it represents the offset between the AU
pointer position and the first byte of the
D4 D5 D6 6 associated higher order VC-X
D7 D8 D9 7 H3: 3 bytes used only in case of “negative
D10 D11 D12 8
justification”. They host “extra” bytes of
payload (the VCx is withdrawn inside the
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X 9
STM frame).
Y=1001nn11 (n=not specified digit) REMARK: Because the Payload submatrix
U=11111111 can accommodate until only one AU-4
structure, its position is driven by a single
triple of bytes.
VC-4 The pointer configuration (row 4) becomes:
H1YYH2UUH3H3H3
81
 SDH
H1 & H2 values Networks

H1 H2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 NDF S POINTER

NDF (New Data Flags): initialization request indicator; it can assume 2 different values
• NDF = 0110
• NDF = 1001

The first value is related to an absence of justification or in presence of a little change of

position that can be easily handled by a (negative or positive) justification

The second value is used when occur some remarkable variations in the frame and then
a new resynchronization is needed.

Two bits S specify the kind of Administrative Unit (AU3 or AU4).

The last ten bits represent the real pointer indicating the VC starting position
When an Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) happens, all bits of H1 and H2 are set to 1.

82
 SDH
Path OverHead (POH) Networks

A Path OverHead (POH) allows to check the transmission

quality, also providing some important error detecting &
P monitoring functions. It also controls the payload routing
O Container
through the SDH network and eventual alarm indication.
H C-x
Two different kinds of Path Overhead are defined:
Virtual Container VC-x - Higher Order POH - associated to a VC-4 or to a VC-3
- Lower Order POH - associated to a VC-12

VC4 VC3
1 261 bytes 1 85 bytes
J1 J1
B3 B3
C2 C2
G1 G1
C4 C3
F2 F2
H4 H4
Z3 Z3
K3 K3
Z5 Z5
VC4-POH VC3-POH 83
 SDH
POH for VC-3 and VC-4 Networks

The internal structure of a POH is the same for VC-3 & VC-4. POH for
VC-3 &
- Byte J1 (Path Trace): At the begin of a transmission path, the source of signal
VC-4
inserts a particular configuration string called PAPI (Path Access Point
Identifier). At the end of the transmission path, the termination compares the
J1
received string with the expected value. In this way, it can check if it’s
actually connected with the correct source.
B3
- Byte B3 (Path Error Monitoring): the error monitoring function uses the Bit
Interleaved Parity 8 (BIP-8) code and “even parity”. BIP-8 is calculated over C2
all bits of the previous VC before scrambling and put it in the current byte.
G1
- Byte C2 (Signal Label): it identifies the VC Payload Type. For example:
- If C2 = 0  the VC isn’t equipped. F2
- If C2 = 1  the VC is equipped but the payload is not specified H4
- If C2 = 2  TUG structured payload
- If C2 = 4  asynchronous 34 Mb/s or 45 Mb/s in VC3 Z3
- If C2 = 12  asynchronous 140 Mb/s in VC4 K3
- If C2 = 13  ATM cells payload
- Bytes F2 e Z3 (User Channel): they allow user communication between path Z5
elements. 84
 SDH
POH for VC-3 and VC-4(2) Networks

POH for
- Byte G1 (Path Status): It is used to give to the VC_path_source some VC-3 &
important information about the actual status and performance of the path VC-4
termination.
The first 4 bits contain the REI (Remote Error Indication): J1
if its value is included in the range 0-8, it is equal to the number of errors
and violations detected using the BIP-8 code (i.e. the received byte B3); B3
All other values (between 9 and 15) mean: no error detected.
C2
The fifth bit contains the RDI (Remote Defect Indicator):
this flag is set to 1 when the receiving end has detected an incoming path G1
failure; otherwise, it is reset to 0.
F2
The last three bits are actually not used yet.
H4
REI R Not Used
D Z3
1 2 3 4 5I 6 7 8
K3
Z5

85
 SDH
POH for VC-3 and VC-4(3) Networks

- Byte H4 (Position Indicator): it can indicate the start position of VC-1 or POH for
VC-2 multiframes. VC-3 &
VC-4
- Byte K3 (Automatic Protection Switching): it is used to protect the higher
order path level. J1
Only the first 4 bits are actually used for this purpose while the last 4 are not
allocated yet B3

C2
- Byte Z5 (Network Operator): it is used for management and maintenance
purposes. G1

F2
H4

Z3
K3
Z5

86
 SDH
POH for VC-12 Networks
All lower order Virtual Containers (VC-11, VC-12, VC-2) carry a POH containing
auxiliary information for Error Monitoring, Error Indication and Signalling Labels.
It is composed of 8 bits and it is called V5-byte.
BIP-2 R R SIGNAL R
E F LABEL D
1 2 I 3 I 4 5 6 7 I 8
- Bits 1-2 (BIP-2): they are used for error monitoring by BIP-2 code, with even parity.
This pair of bits is calculated over all bits of the previous VC.
Bit 1 is calculated over odd number bits (1,3,5,7) while Bit 2 concerning even number
bits (2,4,6,8)
- Bit 3 (REI - Remote Error Indication): used to inform the other side about detected
error(s). It’s set to 1 when 1 or 2 errors are occurred; it’s 0 in case of “no error”.
- Bit 4 (RFI - Remote Failure Indicator): a value equal to 1 indicates a “path failure”.
- Bits 5-7 (Signal Label): are used as VC path type indicators. For example:
- 000  the VC path isn’t equipped.
- 001  the VC path is equipped but without a specific payload
- 010  asynchronous (optional)
- 011  bit synchronous (optional)
- 100  byte synchronous (optional)
- Bit 8 (RDI - Remote Defect Indication): it is set to 1 when an AIS has been detected
or acknowledged or in presence of a signal failure condition; else, its value is 0.
87
 SDH
Maintenance Networks

The performance of a NE must be continuously monitored to assure that all its

functions are working “error free” (as expected).

We can distinguish three classes of problems:

• Anomaly: it is a discrepancy between the the actual and desired characteristics
of an item (e.g. a BIP-8 error)
• Defect: it is a temporary interruption in the ability of an item to perform
correctly a required function
• Failure: it is a persistent defect. A NE enters a failure state when a fault has
been detected and it exits only when this abnormal condition has been removed

To know a fault condition is necessary that a specific report is immediately

generated and sent to the maintenance operators and/or backwards and forwards
to the adjacent NEs.
A lot of these reports can be classified as “alarms”

88
 SDH
Alarms Networks

Alarms can be generally divided into 2 main different groups:

• Internal Alarms (Card Fail or Physical alarms)

• Line Alarms (Logical alarms).

Each single alarm can be associated to one of these severities:

• Urgent
• Not Urgent
• Unabled

89
 SDH
Internal Alarms Networks

This kind of error is generated in case of a “missing” / “not_replying” /

“out_of_order” card.

Internal alarms are common to each kind of unit.

All the units equipped with a Card Controller can also have another type of
alarm: Software Error Alarm.

They can have two different priorities:

- High Priority (ex. Card Failure)
- Low Priority (ex. LAP-D Failure)

For the priorities are often used other terms: Critical, Major and Minor

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Internal Alarms Description Networks

CARD MISSING
This alarm indicates that in a specific slot a card has been declared but the slot
is actually empty.
The alarm is cancelled when a new card is inserted into the slot or when the
card’s declaration is removed from the rack configuration.
CARD MISMATCH
This alarm indicates that in a specific slot a card has been declared but the slot
is actually filled in with a different kind of card.
The alarm is cancelled when the right card is inserted into the slot or when the
card’s declaration is modified into the rack configuration.
CARD FAILURE
This alarm indicates that the card filled in a specific slot is out of service.
The alarm is cancelled when the old card is substituted by a new one.
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LAP-D KO
This alarm indicates that the data channels connecting the present NE and
remote units are down.
In the remote side a LAP-D FAIL Alarm is generated

There are two different types of LAP-D KO Alarm:

- MS LAP-D Fail (data channels of Multiplexer Section are down)
- RS LAP-D Fail (data channels of Regenerator Section are down).

It is a NOT URGENT Alarm

The problem can be solved checking the LAP-D settings in the Application
Local Configuration, or in the LAP_D Configuration and Local Configuration
Table.

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Line Alarms Networks

Line Alarms:
The most common and important line alarms are:
- LOS (Loss Of Signal)
- LOF (Loss Of Frame)
- LOP (Loss Of Pointer)
- LSS (Loss of Sequence Synchronization)
- SD (Signal Degraded).
- EXBER (Excessive Bit Error Rate)
- PDH/SDH-AIS (PDH or SDH Alarm Indication Signal)
- AU-AIS (Administrative Unit Alarm Indication Signal)
- MS-AIS (Multiplex Section Alarm Indication Signal)
- MS-RDI (Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication)
- MS-FERF (Multiplex Section Far End Receive Failure)
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LOS: it is an alarm indicating that the present (receiving) unit is waiting for an
external signal but actually it is receiving nothing.
It is declared when no light pulses persist for 100sec.
If it persists for a period longer than 2.5sec, then an URGENT alarm LOS is
generated and sent.
It requires an immediate check about incoming line equipment (connectors,
cables, fibres) and about transmitters (lasers).

LOF: it is an alarm indicating that the present (receiving) unit has detected a
persistent error into incoming fixed pattern bytes (A1&A2) of RSOH.
It is declared when an error frame is detected for a period longer than 3ms,
while it’s really considered by receiver only if four consecutive frames carry
incorrect patterns: in this case an URGENT alarm LOF is generated and sent.

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LOP: it is an alarm indicating a generic problem about pointers.

It is declared when a pointer failure occurs, such as out_of_range_value,
wrong_NDF, or any other failures related to the pointer processing mechanism
used for TU-PTR or AU-PTR. In this case an alarm LOP is generated and sent.

LSS: it is an alarm that reports a loss of a primary or secondary timing source

reference. In this case an URGENT alarm LSS is generated and sent.

SD: it is an URGENT alarm indicating that has been detected, for an incoming
STM-N signal, a value of BER (Bit Error Rate)  10-6
It means that NE is actually receiving a degraded SDH signal.

EXBER: it is an URGENT alarm indicating that has been detected, for an

-3
incoming STM-N signal, a value of BER (Bit Error Rate)  10
It means that NE is actually receiving a very degraded SDH signal.
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AIS: There are two different kinds of AIS alarms related to hierarchical signal
kinds: PDH-AIS and SDH-AIS.

When a problem about a PDH signal occurs (along its transmission path) a
PDH-AIS is generated and forwarded. In this way, all the equipment involved
in the transmission path (starting from the point of failure) are correctly alerted.
In presence of a PDH-AIS, the data channel is filled with a sequence of “1” that
can be detected and handled only by PDH devices.

For the SDH-AIS alarm the situation is similar:

When a problem about a SDH signal occurs (along its transmission path) a
SDH-AIS is generated and forwarded. In this way, all the equipment involved
in the transmission path (starting from the point of failure) are correctly alerted.
In presence of a SDH-AIS, the data channel is filled with a sequence of “1” that
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 SDH
Line Alarms Description (4) Networks

AU-AIS: If the high level SDH frame content is abnormal, an AU-AIS is

generated: in this case both AU-PTR and Payload Area are filled with all “1”
while Section Overhead Area (RSOH&MSOH) is unmodified.
A detected AU4-AIS is really considered by receiver only if three consecutive
frames contain all AU-PTR bit set to “1”.

MS-AIS: it is generated in consequence of a LOS or a LOF detected on the

incoming side of a multiplexer. When a MS-AIS is generated, all bytes of the
payload area, MSOH and AU-PTR are set to “1”. A received MS-AIS is
considered “true” and therefore considered only if the related pattern “111” (bit
6,7,8 of K2 byte into MSOH) for at least three consecutive frames.

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MS-RDI: When a MTF (Multiplex Termination Function) receives a SDH

very degraded signal (LOS, EXBER, LOF, LOP) or detects a MS-AIS, it sends
backwards a MS-RDI alarm.
For this purpose, bits 6,7,8 of byte K2 belonging to MSOH are set to “110”.

MS-FERF: it is generated (as “acknowledgement alarm”) when MST

function has read the configuration “110” into bits 6,7 e 8 of received byte K2
for at least 3 consecutive frames.

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 SDH
Document Info Networks

Author: Memoli Antonio

Unit: Alcatel Italia (site Battipaglia)
Tel. Ext.: (3)243
Ref_file PC: 1_SDH_LIBYA.ppt
Ed: 01
Num. Pages: 99
Date of Rel.: 29 January 2003

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