Sampling Technique

Sample and sampling

 Sampling is the process or technique of
selecting a sample of appropriate
characteristics and adequate size.
 Population is an aggregate of elements, called
the “universe, reference or parent” population
Not all elements can be suitable for
investigation
 Sample
 Sample is a part (segment) of the study
population
 Units of observation or the unit about which
data is collected and analyzed
 Why Sample?
 Samples are taken to obtain
information about populations.

 Sample estimators are computed to

estimate statistics of the population
from which the sample was drawn.
 Advantages of sampling
 Reduces the cost of the investigation, the time
required and the number of personnel involved
 Useful if the test is highly technical or done by
experts
 Allows thorough investigation of the unit of
observation
 Sample can be covered more adequately than can
the total population
 Requisites for a reliable sample
1. Efficiency
2. Coverage
3. Representativeness
4. Measurability
5. Size
6. Goal oriented
7. Feasibility
8. Economy and cost efficiency
 Sampling Techniques
 Probability
Sampling
Techniques
 Non-probability
Sampling
Techniques
Probability Sampling Techniques
 Techniques for selecting sampling units so
that each unit has a known chance of being
included
– Also called random sample because sampling
units are selected “at random”
 Tests of significance only valid for
probability samples
Probability Sampling Techniques
 Five types:
• Simple random sample
• Systematic sample
• Stratified sample
• Cluster sampling
• Multi-stage area sample
 Simple Random Sample
–Each unit in the population has an equal
chance of being selected from a list
–Requires having a list of potential
participants
– List of eligible voters, companies, students, libraries
–Process:
– Number the units on the list
– Use table of random numbers or computer to make
selection
 Systematic Sample
 Each sampling unit has an equal chance of
being selected, by choosing the nth case,
starting randomly
– E.g., units listed in students list, directories
 Systematic Sample
 Process
– Secure list: map, diagram, list
– Divide sample required into number on the list to
determine the skip interval
– Choose a random number used to begin randomly then
every nth number selected
 Stratified
 When the population
is heterogeneous
overall, but within it
there are
homogeneous
populations (strata)
the population is
stratified.
 Stratified Sample
 Sampling within subgroups to ensure an
adequate representation of each subgroup
– Important when subgroup is small in number
– Employs a random selection method
 Example:
– In a study of gender and lab. services
– The sample was stratified by gender to ensure
that enough female lab. Scientists and were
included in the study for comparison with
males
 Stratified Sampling (cont’d)
 Process:
– Determine sample size needed for subgroups
– Obtain list for each subgroup
– Use either simple random or systematic
sampling select respondents
 Within SPSS it is possible to weight cases
to return the sample so it can represent the
larger population
Cluster
 Another modified
random sample design
-- requires that the
sample unites be
grouped in clusters in
the universe.
 Not grouped by
homogeneous strata in
the population.
 Multi-Stage Area Sample
 This method is used when study involves a
large population such as provinces or a
whole country for which no list exists
– Identify primary sampling units: select sample
(country, provinces, counties)
– Identify sub-units within selected units (city
blocks, square kilometers etc.): select sample
– Identify households within sub-units: select
sample
– Within household select respondents
– Selection is always done randomly
 Non-Probability Sampling
 Non-probability samples do not provide an
equal or a known chance of being selected
– Hence, no assurance that the sample will be
representative of the study population
 Three types:
1.Quota sample
2.Convenience sample
3.Snowball sample
 Quota Sample
 Respondents are selected on the basis of meeting
certain criteria
 No list of potential respondents is required:
usually done on a first-come, first-included basis
until quota is filled
– Sampling stops when enough are included in each
category
– Cannot claim that the sample represents the
population
 Convenience Sampling
 Sample selection motivated by convenience
to the researcher
– E.g., using all those in attendance at a meeting
or a class; interviewing people in a mall
 Strong potential for recruiting a non-
representative sample
 Snowball Sampling
 Sample selection depends upon current
participants recruiting other potential
participants into the study
– Also known as “referral sampling”
 Snowball Sampling
 Used when participants with specific
characteristics are difficult to locate, such as
people involved in deviant groups (drugs
gang) or activities (prostitutes) or people
with certain life experience (homeless) or
occupation
 Sample Size and Accuracy
 Statistical procedures are sensitive to
sample size
– In effect, sample size influences the precision
of estimations (the confidence intervals used in
statistical procedures)
– This applies only to probability samples
 Errors
 Sampling (internal) Error
 Non-Sampling (external) Error
 Errors
 Sampling (internal) Error: is the
difference between sample proportion
(mean) and population proportion
(mean)
The fact that a sample was taken, the
sample statistic is expected to deviate
from the population parameter.
 Errors
 Non-Sampling (external) Error

Practical considerations in taking a sample.

recording errors
coding errors
processing errors
 Errors
 Bias
Most insidious to detect ....
poorly defined universe
inadequate sampling design
improperly worded questions
distorted answers
convenience sampling
 Response rate
 Response rate: the percentage of delivered
questionnaires completed and returned
 The Impact of Refusals
 Tests of significance assume:
1. A probability sampling technique was used to
collect the data and
2. There is no systematic bias in the sample (i.e.,
measurement error is random, not systematic)
 Although non-response is common, it is not
clear how it affects the precision of the results
 Every effort should be made to have a good
response rate