Transmission and Switching Modes
Last Lesson Recap
Analog signal
•Values vary continuously
•Classified as periodic/non-periodic
•Characterized by f, T, A, λ, Ɵ
•Uses broadband channel uses baseband bandwidth
•Requires a band-pass channel
(frequency starts any point)
•Allow multiple frequencies
•Result to low quality signals
•Transmitted over long distance (WAN)
•Slow
•Expensive
Digital signal
values remain constant
classified into levels
characterized by pulse and baud
require a low-pass channel
(frequency starts from base, 0)
transmits only one signal at a time
transmit high quality signals
short distance (at the LAN side)
fast
cheap
 Last Lesson Recap
• We were able to answer the questions
1. What digital and analog signals are
2. Why digital are preferred between source and
transmitter/receiver and destination and analog
signals between transmitter and receiver
• Todays lesson answers the question how
digital and analog signals are transmitted
 Topics
Transmission Switching
• Parallel and Serial • Packet
• Asynchronous • Circuit
• Synchronous • Message
• Isochronous
• Factors Affecting Signal Transmission
 Transmission Modes
transmission mode refer to the manner in which data is
sent over the underlying medium
Transmission modes can be structured as shown in the
figure below:
 Parallel Transmission
• Parallel transmission is the transmission of a number (2, 4, 8, 32, 64
etc) of data bits at the same time
• over a number (2, 4, 8, 32, 64 etc) of corresponding separate
independent lines
• A fast method but prone to signal errors
• Apply for short distance e.g within computer systems like
communication between CPU, VDU, printers,
• Furthermore, the signals on all wires are synchronized so that a bit
travels across each of the wires and arrive at precisely the same time

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•
Serial Transmission
Transmits data bits one at a time using one line
• A slow but efficient method that is not prone to errors
• Mostly used in communication
• Bits arrive at different times, therefore require synchronization
• Since the computer system uses parallel mode and communication
system requires serial mode of transmission, a single chip that is
known as a Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART)
converts parallel to serial transmission
• A related chip, Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver and
Transmitter (USART) converts serial to parallel transmissions
(synchronizes received bits)

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 Clock Synchronization
• The process of coordinating clocks of
different systems for them to match (clock
recovery)
• Applied usually if communicating systems
differ in frequency, phase angles and baud
rates (internal clocks/times)
• If clocks are not synchronized,
communicating systems do not realize the
same global time, therefore will not
communicate well
 Asynchronous Transmission
• A method where data units are transmitted character by
character
• Each byte is marked off with special control extra bits (i.e
start-and stop bits) to represent start and stop respectively
and also used to time internal clocks between senders and
receivers

• It allows the physical medium to be idle for an arbitrary

time between two transmissions
 Asynchronous Transmission
• Transmits less data volume; extra bits and arbitrary
gaps
• A slow method; the arbitrary gaps take unspecified
time, not good for large amount of data transfer
• However, it’s a self synchronized method; arbitrary
gaps creates disturbances required for
synchronization. The extra start-stop-bits equally
ensures the timing of the serial transmission of bits
• Therefore data can be transmitted at the sender’s
convenience
• Suitable if the source and destination systems are
assumed to be different (which is the asumption in
normal circumstances)
 Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous is where data units are transmitted in
character blocks
• A block/frame is identified with a start and an end byte
• Transmits bits of data continually; has no arbitrary gaps
• Requires synchronization and therefore more expensive
• It is appropriate for large computer systems for quick and
large data transmission.
• Can be used where source and destination systems are
same
 Isochronous Transmission
• Isochronous transmission transmits asynchronous data
over synchronous data link
• Transmits data character by character
• Each data unit has extra start-stop bits for synchronization
• Individual characters are separated by fixed length intervals
to provide steady bit flow for multimedia applications
• Delivering such data at a steady rate is essential
– because variations in delay known as jitter can disrupt
reception (cause pops or clicks in audio/make video
freeze for a short time)
• For example, an isochronous mechanism designed to
transfer voice operates at a rate of 64,000 bits per second
– A sender must generate digitized audio continuously
– A receiver must be able to accept and play the stream
 Switching Techniques
• The internet contains not two but numerous number
of routers as the number of networks exist
• Numerous routers result to multiple paths linking
sender and receiver.

R2 R4

A R1 R6 B

R3 R5

LAN 1 WAN LAN 2

 Switching Techniques
• Therefore switching techniques refers to
the manner in which information may be
switched as it travels through various
communication paths/channels.
• There are three typical switching
techniques available for traffic.
• Packet Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
 Packet Switching
• Large messages are divided into fixed size packets
for transmission over Wide Area Networks (WANs)
to their destination via several different shared
routes.
• Sending computers break messages into packets
then sent them over different routes at different
speeds with packets from other sources
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and
destination addresses.
• At their destination, the receiving computers
reassembles the packets in the proper order to
make the message whole.
 1
1 R2 R4 1

3
4 4
6 5 3 2 4 1
A R1 3 R6 B

2 4
2
R3 R5 3
3 2 4
 Packet Switching
• Since packets have a strictly defined
maximum length, they can be stored in
main memory instead of disk, therefore
access delay and cost are minimized.
• Can handle large volumes of data over
long distances.
• Suitable for data but not real-time voice
and video transmission.
• Used in Ethernet and internet networks.
Advantages and of Packet switching
• Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
• Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
• The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by
making optimal use of link bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Packet switching
• Protocols for packet switching are typically more
complex.
• It can add some initial costs in implementation.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the
data.
• Another disadvantage is that packet-switched
systems still can’t deliver the same quality as
dedicated circuits in applications requiring very
little delay - like voice conversations or moving
images.
 Circuit switching
• Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same
way as the telephone system works.
• It transmits messages as a whole(one) over dedicated
channels
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and completed to
the destination device, the destination device must
acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a
transfer.
• Good for real-time data and application (streaming and
voice)
Advantages:
•The communication channel (once established) is
dedicated.
Disadvantages:
•Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10
seconds, more on long- distance or international
calls.) during which no data can be transmitted.
•More expensive than any other switching
techniques, because a dedicated path is required for
each connection.
•Inefficient use of the communication channel,
because the channel is not used when the connected
systems are not using it (wastes bandwidth).
 Message Switching
• Message switching establishes dedicated paths between only one
section of the total path, not the whole path.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety,
from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on
disk, and then transmits the message to the next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Advantages: Message Switching
•Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
•Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
•Message priorities can be established due to store-and-
forward technique.
•Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
Disadvantages
•Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
•Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must
have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
 Factors Affecting Data Transmission
1. Serial vs parallel
2. Synchronous, asynchronous, and isochronous
3. packet, circuit or message switching
4. Transmission rate (throughput Vs Bandwidth):
Throughput is the speed/capacity/baud rate of data
transmission in bps
• Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over a channel
• Baseband bandwidth transmits digital signals therefore
travel for short distance and require exclusive use of a
medium
• Broadband bandwidth transmits analog signals therefore
signals travel for longer distance and many signal
frequencies use the same medium
 Factors Affecting Data Transmission
5. direction of signal travel
• Simplex transmits a signal in one direction only
e.g from broadcasting station to an antennae
• Half duplex transmits a signal in both directions
but one at a time e.g in radio calls
• Full diplex transmits a signal in both directions
simultaneously for interaction as in computers
• Multiplex is the transmission of many signals in
both directions simultaneously using one channel
through either frequency, time, wavelength and
code division multiplexing techniques
 Factors Affecting Data Transmission
6. Number of sender and receivers
• Unicast transmits from one transmitter to one
other receiver therefore good for few number of
nodes
• Broadcast involves one transmitter and all receivers
in a network irrespective of whether they receive
the signal or not. It is good for mobile devices but
wastes bandwidth
• Multicast involves one transmitter to a number of
receivers in a network. It does not waste
bandwidth and it is good for many number of
devices as a signal is only send once