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WEEK 2
Morphemes, words, and lexemes
Root Affixational
Prefix Suffix
Root Morphemes
- Root morphemes (lexical morphemes/the stem/the
root): the primary element of a word conveying its
essential lexical meaning
- The root appears in all the different forms of a single
word.
- It is what remains after all the other elements of a
word have been removed and cannot be further
divided into smaller meaningful elements.
- For example, in the word ‘unkindly’, ‘kind’ is the
root.
- A root morpheme can be free or bound.
Free Root Morphemes
- A free root morpheme can function
independently.
- It doesn’t need to be combined with other
morphemes to be an independent word.
- It has dictionary meaning; we can provide
a definition for it.
- For example, ‘teach’ in ‘teacher’.
Bound Root Morphemes
- A bound root morpheme cannot function
independently.
- It has to be combined with other morphemes
to make an independent word.
- For example, act (= do, e.g., in activate),
ambu (= walk, e.g., in perambulator = pram=
baby carriage; buggy), ami/amo (= love, e.g.,
in enamored of something), annus (year),
aqua (water), anthrop (humankind), astr
(star), audi (hear), biblio (book), bio (life),
Bound Root Morphemes
• Biannual
• Philanthropy
• Astroarchaeology = Archeoastronomy
• Misanthropy
• Deactivate (All chemical weapons facilities
will be deactivated.)
• Mediterranean/mermaid
• dehydration
Bound Root Morphemes
• carni (meat/flesh), cede/cess/ceed/ced
(go/come), chronos (time), cide (kill),
clude/claudo (close, as in claustrophobia),
dict (say, as dictation), dorm (sleep), duct
(lead, as in conduct), ego (self; egocentric),
fact (make; factory), fer (carry; transfer),
fem (woman; effeminate = like a woman),
eco (house), fidel (trust), flex (bend;
flexible), fluent, flou (flow; superfluous =
unnecessary),
Bound Root Morphemes
• fract (break), frat (brother; fraternal), fuge
(flee; fugitive), gam (marriage), gen
(birth/race; genocide), geo (earth), gnostos
(know; prognosis), gram (letters), graph
(writing), gress (step/move; ingress), gyn
(woman; gynecologist/obstetrician), herbi
(grass), host (enemy), here (stick; coherence),
hetero (different; heterogeneous), homo (alike),
hydro (water), ject (throw; injection, eject),
Bound Root Morphemes
• later (side), lingua (tongue), lithos (stone),
logy (study), lumin (light), manu (hand),
magni (big), mania (madness;
megalomaniac), masc (male; masculine),
matri (mother; matriarchy), metron
(measure/metrical), mit (send; transmit),
morph (form), mort (death), nym (name),
omni (all), ops (eye; optical), pater, patri
(father), pathy (feelings), ped (foot), pel
(pus/drive), pend (hang;
appendage/appendix),
Bound Root Morphemes
• phil (love), phobia (fear; acrophobia),
phon (sound), port (carry), pose (put),
pseudo (false), psych (mind), quire (seek;
acquire), scend (climb; transcend), scope
(see), script (write), sec (cut; dissect), sed
(sit; sedentary), sentio (feel; resentful),
sequ (follow; consecutive), sign (mark;
consignment), spect (view), soro (sister;
sorority); solve (loosen; resolution), soph
(wise; philosopher),
Bound Root Morphemes
• sui (self), sume (use up, take; consume),
tact (touch), tele (distance), terre (earth),
thermo (heat), theo (god), tract (draw
away), vene (come; intervene), vert
(turn; diversion), vis (see), vore (eat), vie
(life), zoo (animal)
Greek Bound Root Morphemes
• astr-o: stars, heavens: astronaut, astrology,
astronomer
• bi-o: life: biography, biosphere, biology
• ge-o: earth, rocks: geology, geographer,
geothermal
• therm: heat, warm: thermostat, thermal,
exothermic
• aut-o: self: autism, automatic, autoimmune,
autograph
Greek Bound Root Morphemes
• hom-o: same, alike: homonym, homogenize,
homophone
• hydr-o: water: hydrogen, hydrology,
hydroelectric
• micro: small: microscope, microclimate,
microcosm
• macro: large: macroclimate,
macroevolution
Greek Bound Root Morphemes
• phon-o: sound, speech: telephone, phonics,
symphony
• scope: to observe, to see: telescope,
microscope, kaleidoscope
• graph: written: autograph, telegraph,
geographer
• phot-o: light: photograph, photon, photobiotic
• tele: distant, far: telescope, television,
telecommunications
Greek Bound Root Morphemes
• meter, metr: instrument used, to measure:
metric, thermometer, barometer,
chronometer
• path, pass: suffering, feeling, disease:
psychopath, pathogen, sympathy, empathy
compassion
• psych-o: mind, mental: psychology, psychic,
psychotropic
Greek Bound Root Morphemes
• pan: all, whole: panorama, panacea,
pantomime, pandemonium
• zoo: animal: zoology, zootoxin,
zoogeography
• chron: time: chronic, chronological,
synchronized
• phobia: fear, intense dislike: claustrophobia,
xenophobic, arachnophobia
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• port: to carry: transport, export, porter,
portal, reporter
• form: to shape: formation, reform,
conform, formulation
• tract: to pull: tractor, subtract, detract,
traction, retractable
• rupt: to break: disrupt, interrupt, rupture,
corrupt
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• spect, spec: to see, to watch: inspect, suspect,
spectator, respect, specimen
• struct, stru: to build: construct, structure,
instruct, construe
• dict, dic: to tell, to say: dictionary, dictate,
predict, indicate
• flec, flex: to bend: flexible, reflector, genuflect,
inflection
• cred: to believe: credit, credentials, credulous,
incredible
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• aqua: water: aquatic, aquarium, aquamarine
• pel, puls: to drive, push: propel, compel,
impel, repel, impulse, pulsate
• fact, fac: to make, to do: factory, facilitate,
factor, faction, factotum
• ject: to throw, to throw down: inject,
projectile, reject, subject, conjecture
• vert, vers: to turn: reverse, versatile, convert,
revert, divert
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• mit, mis: to send: missile, missionary,
admission, emit, transmit
• mort: to die: mortal, mortician, mortuary
• script, scrib: to write: scribble, script,
scripture, prescription
• junct: to join: conjunction, junction,
adjunct, juncture
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• cide: to kill, a killer: suicide, genocide,
homicide
• press: to force, squeeze: press, impress,
express, compress, repress
• spire: to breathe: respire, respiration,
respiratory, conspire, inspire, perspire,
expire, spirit, spirited, spiritual
Latin Bound Root Morphemes
• grad, gress: to step: graduate, gradual,
gradations, regress, congress, digress,
transgress, egress, progression
• cept, capt: to take, seize, receive: capture,
captivity, intercept, exception
Affixational Morphemes
- Affixational morphemes are bound and
dependent.
- They are added to the root of a word to
change its function or meaning.
Grammatical/Inflectional
morphemes
• 1) Grammatical/Inflectional morphemes:
carry only the grammatical meaning = they
only change the grammatical function of the
root. For example: ‘s’ in ‘boys’
Derivational Morphemes
2) Derivational morphemes (lexico-
grammatical morphemes): carry both
grammatical and lexical meanings
- They change the grammatical function
and add some lexical meaning to the root.
- Derivational morphemes can be prefixes
or suffixes.
- For example: ‘-ly’ in ‘friendly’.
Morphemes
- Many morphemes vary in form, depending on
where they occur.
- E.g., , the morpheme sane has one form when it
occurs in the words sane and insane, but a
different form when it occurs in the word
sanity.
- The negative prefix in- exhibits several
different forms in the words insincere,
impossible, and illegal.
- These variant forms are called the allomorphs
of the morpheme.
Morphemes
- Sometimes it’s easy to draw a line
between two morphemes. Sometimes,
it’s not that easy.
- The past tense form loved consists of
two morphemes, the verb-stem love and
a grammatical morpheme called Past.
- It’s not too hard to draw a line between
them.
Morphemes
- The past tense form took consists of two
morphemes, the verb-stem take, and the
morpheme Past.
- However, we can’t draw a neat line
between them at all: the two morphemes
are just wrapped up in a single bundle.
- We have to appeal to a more abstract
level of representation to show that took
is really take plus Past.
Morphemes
- The term morpheme was coined in the late
nineteenth century by the Polish linguist Jan
Baudouin de Courtenay, but it was not always
used in the modern sense.
- That modern sense was established by the
American linguist Leonard Bloomfield in the
1930s, and it was Bloomfield and his successors
who made the study of morphemes a central
part of linguistics.
6. Lexemes
- A lexeme (lexical item/lexical unit/lexical
entry)
1) a word or a sequence of words that acts as a
unit of meaning in the meaning system of a
language
2) words, phrases, fixed expressions, phrasal
verbs and proverbs, e.g., "cat", "traffic
light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and
"don't count your chickens before they
hatch"
- A lexeme is an abstract unit.
Lexemes
- It can occur in many different forms in actual
spoken or written sentences, and is regarded
as the same lexeme even when inflected.
- A word entered in the dictionary in one single
entry is considered to be a lexeme.
- E.g., in English, all inflected forms such as
give, gives, given, giving, gave would belong to
the one lexeme give.
Lexemes
- Such fixed expressions as couch potato (a lazy
man), kick the bucket (die), bury the hatchet (stop
an argument and become friends again, throw in
the towel (admit defeat), hammers and tongs (with
every/tremendous energy/ effort), give up, white
paper (of the government to pass a new law), and
green paper (consultation document/to propose a
strategy) would be each considered as a single
lexeme.
- In a dictionary, each lexeme merits a separate
entry or sub-entry.
7. Words
- A word = a linguistic unit typically larger than
a morpheme but smaller than a phrase.
- Words can be defined in at least four different
ways, and these ways are not equivalent at all.
1) An orthographic word is something written
with white spaces at both ends but no white
space in the middle.
- Orthographic words are of minimal linguistic
interest.
Words
2) A phonological word is something pronounced
as a single unit. (let’s/ ice cream/have to/used to)
3) A lexical item (lexeme) is a dictionary word, an
item which you would expect to find having its
own entry in a dictionary.
4) A grammatical word-form (GWF) (or
morphosyntactic word) is any one of the several
forms which a lexical item may assume for
grammatical purpose.
Words
- E.g., , the item ice cream:
1) two orthographical words
2) a single phonological word (pronounced as a unit)
3) a single lexical item (as entered in the dictionary)
4) a single grammatical word form
- dog, and dogs are each
1) a single orthographic word
2) a single phonological word
3) a single GWF,
but they both represent the same lexical item (they
would only get one entry in the dictionary).
Words
- take, takes, took, taken, and taking:
1) five orthographic words
2) five phonological words
3) five GWFs,
but only one lexical item.
- The two lexical items here would be entered in
the dictionary as “dog” and “take”.
- These are citation form (the lemma form), the
form chosen by convention to represent the
lexeme of these lexical items.
Words
- The contraction hasn’t
1) is a single orthographic word
2) a single phonological word
3) two lexical items (have and not)
4) two GWFs (has and not)
Words
- The phrasal verb make up ( as in she made
up her face)
1) two orthographic words
2) two phonological words
3) only one lexical item (because of its
unpredictable meaning)
4) several GWFs: make up, makes up, made
up, making up.
Words
- “Make up” must be entered separately in the
dictionary each time it represents a different
meaning (make up one’s mind/make up one’s
face/make up a story).
- The very different sense of “make up” illustrated
in She made up a story would be regarded as a
different lexical item from the preceding one (a
separate dictionary entry is required), but this
lexical item exhibits the same orthographic,
phonological and grammatical forms as the first.
- Consequently, when we are talking about words, it
is essential to specify which sense we have in mind.
8. Word-formation processes
1. Affixation (Prefixation and Suffixation)
2. Conversion China(ware)/metonymy/head the
ball
3. Compounds teach teacher
4. Back-formation (Back-derivation):
edit/editor/baby-sitter/etymology
5. Reduplicatives
6. Abbreviations (clippings, acronyms, blends)
7. Familiarity markers/liz, Kathy,Tommy
1. Affixation
- Affixation = a process of word-formation in which
affixes are added to the base.
Nouns Verb
belief /-f/ believe /v/
mouth /-ɵ/ mouth /ð/
sheath /-ɵ/ sheathe /ð/
wreath /-ɵ/ wreathe /ð/
Conversion with shift of stress
When verbs of two syllables are converted
into nouns, the stress is sometimes shifted
from the second to the first syllable. The first
syllable, typically a Latin prefix, often has a
reduced vowel /∂/ in the verb but a full vowel
in the noun:
He was con’victed /k∂n/of theft, and so
became a ‘convict /kɔn/
3. Compounds
• A compound is a lexical unit consisting of
more than one root with or without
derivational morphemes and functioning
both grammatically and semantically as a
single word.
4. Back-formation (Back-derivation)
burgle bottle-feed house-hunt window-shop