Petroleum Geology

Lecture 1
 ?What is Petroleum
“The word petroleum, derived from the Latin
petra and oleum means literally rock oil and refers
to hydrocarbons that occur widely in sedimentary
rocks in the form of gases, liquids, semisolids or
solids …..petroleum is an extremely complex
mixture of hydrocarbon compounds, usually with
minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur-
containing compounds as well as trace amounts of
metal-containing compounds” Speight (1999).
 ?What is Petroleum
 Complex mixture of organic compounds
 Almost entirely C and H
 Crude oils are typically ~84% C
 Other elements: S, N, O. (usually < 3%)
 Also minor P, V, Ni.
 N, S, O content highly variable

 Bulk Composition
 Crude oils are a complex mixture of organic compounds
including different compound classes.
Saturated hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons

Resins and Asphaltenes (Polars)

 Relative amounts of these classes vary in oils but an

“average” figure that has been quoted by Tissot & Welte
(1984) for the fraction boiling above 210°C is:

57% Saturated hydrocarbons

29% Aromatic hydrocarbons
14 % Polars
Bulk composition of crude oils

From Tissot & Welte, (1984)

 API Gravity and Viscosity

Oils vary in density (API Gravity)* and viscosity

These properties are controlled by the:
relative proportions of saturated and aromatic
hydrocarbons and polars
molecular weight distribution of these compounds e.g.

C1-C4 n-alkanes – gases

C5-C16 n-alkanes – liquids
>C16 n-alkanes – solids
 Molecular composition of petroleum

Complex mixture of:

 Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
Straight chain
Branched

Cyclic

Aromatic hydrocarbons
 1 or more rings
Compounds containing N, S, O.
Wide range
Organic /metal complexes
 n-alkanes
 All linear alkanes
 Usually C1-C40 in oils
(but can extend up to
>C80)
H2 H2 H2 H2
 Usually comprise 15- C C C C CH3
H3C C C C C
20% of crude oils (but H2 H2 H2 H2

can be low in degraded

oils)
 Branched alkanes
 n-alkanes e.g. n-C12
have no isomers
 Branched alkanes have
many. e.g. 355 isomers for
C12, 36 million for C25!
 Not all possible isomers
are stable, but many are
and do therefore occur in
oils

etc
 Branched alkanes (contd.)
Isoprenoid alkanes

 Often prominent
pseudo-homologous
series from C9 - C25, or
higher.
e.g. C19 pristane
 Can account for 1% of
an oil.
 Pristane and phytane
usually most abundant
 Whole Oil GC
500
mV

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100 n-C17
Pristane

n-C18
Phytane

n-C24
50

n-C25

n-C26

n-C27

n-C28

n-C29

n-C30

n-C31

n-C32

n-C33

n-C34
0

min
-50
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
 GC sats

150
Response

100

50

0 20 40 60 80
Retention time
 Cyclic alkanes
 Commonly rings of 5 or 6
C atoms (sterically stable,
ideal C-C-C bond angle =
109.5 degrees)
 Molecules containing 1-5
(sometimes more) rings
common.
 Cycloalkanes often 50%
of an oil
mainly mono- or di- etc
cyclics. e.g.
 Cyclic alkanes (contd.)
 Tetra- and pentacyclic
compounds are
common (can be ~ 25%
of an oil)
 Complex structures,
Sterane (C27)
sometimes inherited
from biochemical
precursors e.g.
biomarkers

Hopane (C30)
 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
 Contain at least one benzene ring
 Typically comprise 20-30% of crude oils
 May contain 2, 3, 4 or more aromatic rings
 Can have alkyl chains or be fused to alicyclic structures
(then termed naphthenoaromatics)
 Typically:
Monoaromatics 33%
Diaromatics 23%
Triaromatics 13%
Tetra- and polyaromatics 7%
Sulphur aromatics 23%
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Benzene

Naphthalene

Phenanthrene

Aromatic steroidal
R
hydrocarbon
 GC aros
Response

75

70

65

60

55

50

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Retention time
 Nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen
containing compounds
 NSO compounds typically in low
concentrations in oils, but occasionally are
abundant.
 Wide range of compounds, mainly
concentrated in the high molecular weight
fraction of crude oils.
 Origin of oil
• A. Geologic
1-Most hydrocarbon deposits occur in sedimentary rocks (marine)

2-Many hydrocarbon deposits occur in porous and permeable

sandstones and carbonate rocks

3-Other minor geologic occurances (in basement rocks, igneous

and metamorphic rocks)

•
• B. Chemical

1- Similarities between crude oils and organically produced

hydrocarbons

A- both have optical property of levorotation

B- Both contain specific complex organic molecules
(porphyrins & Steroids)
C-There are biomarkers that can be identified in particular
source beds and crude oils

2- Similar fingerprinting can be done using gas

chromatography.
 Fundamental conditions for economic
hydrocarbon
• SOURCE ROCK (mostly fine clay with more than 0.5% kerogene)

• RESERVOIR ROCK (porous and permeable as required for production)

• SEAL - CAP ROCK (impermeable cover of the reservoir)

• TRAP (geometric ordening of source rock /reservoir/seal)

• MATURATION (time and temperature)

• CONDUITE (permeable migration path from source rock to trap)

• TIMING (trap needs to be present at the time of migration)

 Organic
Facies

• THE CARBON CYCLE

 Factors influencing organic richness

 PRODUCTIVITY (many factors influencing

productivity would include nutrient availability,
light intensity, temperature, carbonate supply,
and general water chemistry).

 PRESERVATION (Three factors affect the

preservation (or destruction) of organic matter:
the concentration and nature of oxidizing
agents, the type of organic matter deposited,
and the sediment-accumulation rate).
 conditions favorable for preservation

Two important factors

(1) sedimentation rate

(2) bottom water oxygen content (oxidation of the organic
matter)

(1) Sedimentation rate:

the amount of organic matter is positively correlated with
sed rate, to a particular rate, and then there is an inverse
correlation at greater sedimentation rates
Comments
Note that TOC is little further
effected by O2 at high LSAR
.as BE is already high
NB. Includes many of the
coastal fjord and OMZ
examples used by Calvert and
Pedersen.
Oxygen Regime
Anoxic
Already optimal BE due to
anoxia, thus ‘extra’ LSAR only
.gives dilution of OM
TOC low to moderate (<6%?).
Autodilution may be high
where anoxia caused by high
productivity.
HI moderate to good.
Organic facies B
or BC
MODERATE TO GOOD
SOURCE ROCKS
e.g. upwelling -intensified
OMZ facies
Sediment
Accumulation
Oxic Rate
Higher BE due to porewater High
.anoxia, but high OM dilution >20-60 cm/ka-1
TOC low to moderate (3%). e.g. late highstand or
HI low to moderate as high lowstand systems tracts
siliciclastic LSAR linked with
high phytoclast input.
Organic facies C
POOR (GAS-PRONE)
SOURCE ROCKS
e.g. prodeltaic facies
Comments Oxygen Regime Sediment
Accumulation

Anoxic Oxic Rate

Note that BE and TOC critically
.depend on O2 at low LSAR
Most ancient shelf source rocks
= low LSAR and anoxic.
High BE due to anoxia (50-
80%?)
Minimal dilution.
High TOC (3-30%)
HI high (Type II).
Organic facies B,
AB, or B
BEST SOURCE ROCKS
e.g. Black Sea (pars)?
Very low BE (<10%), because Low
.of maximum exposure to O2 <1-10 cm/ka-1
TOC very low (<1%). e.g. condensed
HI low (Type III or IV) sections
Organic facies CD or D
NO SOURCE ROCKS
e.g. modern ocean
 Biochemical degradation of dead organic matter

(CH2)+O2 CO2+H2O

(CH2)+4N3 6CO2+6H2O+2N2

(CH2)+SO4 CO2+H2O+H2S
k;/???
Lakes: warm water stratification allows mixing in
the upper water layers, but Stagnation in the bottom
layers
Barred basin: Salinity stratification in regions where
there is high evaporation ratios
Upwelling zones: In these regions there is sufficient organic matter
Through the water column that the water becomes deplated in oxgyen
 Anoxic ocean basins
There are no modern examples of this, but it is believed
that the cretaceous ocean may have gone anoxic in a
manner similar to that of lakes