LO1

BIOLOGY
 ?WHAT ARE GMOS
• A genetically modified organism, or GMO, is an organism that has had its DNA altered or
modified in some way through genetic engineering.
 
• This process may be called either genetic engineering (ge) or genetic modification (gm); they are
one and the same.

• The term “genetic modification” is used both commonly and legally to refer to the use of
recombinant dna techniques, in ways that are not possible or desirable in nature, to transfer
genetic material between organisms.  This concept of genetic modification brings about
alterations in genetic makeup and in the properties of the organism developed. 
• This technique using genetic engineering is highly mutagenic and leads to
unpredictable changes in the DNA and the proteins produced by the GMO that
can lead to toxic or allergic reactions.

• A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (gm), from animals
to plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred
within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms) and even
across kingdoms. New genes can be introduced, or endogenous genes can be
enhanced, altered or knocked out.
• Genetically modified (gm) organisms are organisms that have had their
genomes changed in a way that does not happen naturally. By changing an
organism’s genome we can change its characteristics.

• Any organism could be genetically modified, but laws restrict the creation of
genetically modified humans, and the production and distribution of other gmos
is tightly regulated.
 ?HOW TO MAKE GMO

• To create a GMO, we change specific characteristics by using lab techniques to

delete or alter particular sections of DNA.

We can also change an organism’s characteristics by introducing new pieces of dna

into their genomes. This could be:
• DNA taken from the same species
• DNA taken from a different species
• DNA made synthetically in the lab.
There are several techniques that can be used to modify a genome:

• 'agrobacterium-mediated' genetic modification is a technique used to introduce new DNA

into a plant genome using a modified microbe.

• 'Gene targeting' is a technique used to introduce new DNA into selected regions of a
genome through a process called homologous recombination.

• 'Genome editing' is a technique used to change selected regions of a genome using

enzymes designed to cut specific DNA sequences.
  ?WHAT IS A GMO

the genomes of organisms change naturally over time, for example:

1. when organisms mate, offspring get bits of DNA from both parents
2. mutations arise as a result of mistakes when DNA is copied
3. environmental factors like UV radiation can create changes in DNA.
• these changes to the DNA are not ‘genetic modifications’ as they happen
naturally.
 ?WHY DO WE MAKE GMOS
• GMOS are generally made for medical, environmental, or commercial reasons.
• GM white mushrooms have had a gene that normally causes them to go brown
altered so it no longer functions. These mushrooms take longer to go brown,
prolonging their shelf-life.
GM bacteria have been developed that have had a gene for insulin added to their
genome. These bacteria produce large quantities of insulin as they grow, which is
then extracted and used by people with diabetes to control their blood sugar levels.

• The acer1 gene is thought to be involved in skin diseases like psoriasis. GM mice
have been made where the acer1 gene no longer functions to study what it
normally does. These mice have hair loss and are less able to control heat and
water loss from their skin.
 :BENEFICIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GMOS
• -The characteristics of the organisms are changed after genetic modification
process, which creates other new characteristics.
• 
• -Typically, plants are genetically modified to increase disease resistance,
resulting in genetically modified organisms that have a great ability to resist
diseases and bacteria inside the soil or outside in the air.
• 
• -They have a great ability in pesticide resistance, pest resistance, abiotic stress
and development in plant breeding.
• -GMOS have many benefits: improving the nutritional quality of foods, reducing
the presence of toxic compounds and reducing allergens in some foods
• There are also indirect benefits such as reducing insecticides and the lack of
mycotoxins.
• 
• -Drought is the single largest abiotic stress factor leading to reduced crop yields,
therefore, the process of genetic modification is done in order to resist drought.

• -In recent years, many countries and international organizations have launched
• Research projects on exploring the drought-tolerance and water-saving
mechanisms of plants to identify key genes or tools for improving plant drought
resistance.
• -Withthe rapid development of the theory and technology of modern biology,
researchers have been justified that modern molecular-biological technology is more
rapid and efficient than conventional selection and breeding in terms of ability to
produce drought-tolerant crops.

• -However, broad adoption of genetically modified crops (gm crops), including crops
with drought tolerance, will depend on adequate safety assessment and related public
acceptance.

• -So far, conventionally bred varieties with similar drought-tolerant characteristics

generally do not need to go through a premarket safety assessment. To meet safety
concerns in the case of GM crop varieties, many countries have formulated specific
regulations to assess the safety of these crops for human and animal consumption and
for the environment.
• -The regulatory genes are involved in signaling cascades and transcriptional or
posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression such as transcription factors, protein
kinases, protein phosphatases, and proteinases.
•
• -Meanwhile, regulatory proteins have been proven to play crucial roles in the responses
of plants to drought stress conditions. Consequently, the modification of the expression
of a regulatory gene is more efficacious and is probably to be widely used in GM crops
with abiotic stress tolerance (the next generation of GM crops).

• - In addition, transcription factors are a dispensable group of proteins that modulate gene
expression to respond to drought stress at the transcriptional level. Many transcriptional
regulators involved in plant responses to drought belong to one of the large transcription
factor families such as APETALA2/ ethy-lene-responsive element binding protein
(AP2/EREBP).
 GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

• A genetically modified organism, or GMO, is an organism that has had its DNA
altered or modified in some way through genetic engineering .  
• This process may be called either genetic engineering (GE) or genetic
modification (GM); they are one and the same.
• The term “genetic modification” is used both commonly and legally to refer to the
use of recombinant DNA techniques, in ways that are not possible or desirable in
nature, to transfer genetic material between organisms.  This concept of genetic
modification brings about alterations in genetic makeup and in the properties of
the organism developed. 
• This technique using genetic engineering is highly mutagenic and leads to
unpredictable changes in the DNA and the proteins produced by the GMO that can
lead to toxic or allergic reactions.

• A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from animals to
plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred within the same species ,
across species (creating transgenic organisms) and even across kingdoms. New
genes can be introduced, or endogenous genes can be enhanced, altered or knocked
out.
• Genetically modified (GM) organisms are organisms that have had their
genomes changed in a way that does not happen naturally. By changing an
organism’s genome we can change its characteristics.

• Any organism could be genetically modified, but laws restrict the creation of
genetically modified humans, and the production and distribution of other gmos
is tightly regulated.
HOW TO MAKE GMO?
• To create a GMO, we change specific characteristics by using lab techniques to
delete or alter particular sections of DNA.
• We can also change an organism’s characteristics by introducing new pieces of
dna into their genomes. This could be:
• DNA taken from the same species
• DNA taken from a different species
• DNA made synthetically in the lab.
THERE ARE SEVERAL TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE
USED TO MODIFY A GENOME:
• 'Agrobacterium-mediated' genetic modification is a technique used to
introduce new DNA into a plant genome using a modified microbe.
• 'Gene targeting' is a technique used to introduce new dna into
selected regions of a genome through a process called homologous
recombination.
• 'Genome editing' is a technique used to change selected regions of a
genome using enzymes designed to cut specific dna sequences.
 WHAT IS NOT A GMO? 
• THE GENOMES OF ORGANISMS CHANGE NATURALLY OVER TIME, FOR
EXAMPLE:
• WHEN ORGANISMS MATE, OFFSPRING GET BITS OF DNA FROM BOTH PARENTS
• MUTATIONS ARISE AS A RESULT OF MISTAKES WHEN DNA IS COPIED
• ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS LIKE UV RADIATION CAN CREATE CHANGES IN
DNA.
• THESE CHANGES TO THE DNA ARE NOT ‘GENETIC MODIFICATIONS’ AS THEY
HAPPEN NATURALLY.
WHY DO WE MAKE GMOS?
• GMOS are generally made for medical, environmental, or commercial reasons.
• Gm white mushrooms have had a gene that normally causes them to go brown altered so it
no longer functions. These mushrooms take longer to go brown, prolonging their shelf-life.

• GM bacteria have been developed that have had a gene for insulin added to their genome.
These bacteria produce large quantities of insulin as they grow, which is then extracted and
used by people with diabetes to control their blood sugar levels.
• The acer1 gene is thought to be involved in skin diseases like psoriasis. GM mice have
been made where the acer1 gene no longer functions to study what it normally does. These
mice have hair loss and are less able to control heat and water loss from their skin.
 BENEFICIAL
:CHARACTERISTICS OF GMOS

• The characteristics of the organisms are changed after genetic modification process, which creates
other new characteristics.

• -Typically, plants are genetically modified to increase disease resistance, resulting in genetically
modified organisms that have a great ability to resist diseases and bacteria inside the soil or
outside in the air. 
• -They have a great ability in pesticide resistance, pest resistance, abiotic stress and development in
plant breeding.
GMOS HAVE MANY BENEFITS:

• Improving the nutritional quality of foods, reducing the presence of toxic

compounds and reducing allergens in some foods

• There are also indirect benefits such as reducing insecticides and the lack of
mycotoxins. 
• -Drought is the single largest abiotic stress factor leading to reduced crop yields,
therefore, the process of genetic modification is done in order to resist drought.

• -In recent years, many countries and international organizations have launched

• Research projects on exploring the drought-tolerance and water-saving

mechanisms of plants to identify key genes or tools for improving plant drought
resistance.
• With the rapid development of the theory and technology of modern biology,
researchers have been justified that modern molecular-biological technology is
more rapid and efficient than conventional selection and breeding in terms of
ability to produce drought-tolerant crops.
 
• -However, broad adoption of genetically modified crops (gm crops), including
crops with drought tolerance, will depend on adequate safety assessment and
related public acceptance.
• -So far, conventionally bred varieties with similar drought-tolerant characteristics
generally do not need to go through a premarket safety assessment. To meet
safety concerns in the case of GM crop varieties, many countries have
formulated specific regulations to assess the safety of these crops for human and
animal consumption and for the environment.

• -The regulatory genes are involved in signaling cascades and transcriptional or

posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression such as transcription factors,
protein kinases, protein phosphatases, and proteinases.
• Meanwhile, regulatory proteins have been proven to play crucial roles in the
responses of plants to drought stress conditions. Consequently, the modification
of the expression of a regulatory gene is more efficacious and is probably to be
widely used in GM crops with abiotic stress tolerance (the next generation of
GM crops).

• - In addition, transcription factors are a dispensable group of proteins that

modulate gene expression to respond to drought stress at the transcriptional
level. Many transcriptional regulators involved in plant responses to drought
belong to one of the large transcription factor families such as APETALA2/ ethy-
lene-responsive element binding protein (AP2/EREBP).
 UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES FOR
HUMANS AND ECOSYSTEMS

• Unintended consequences is the results from actions that were not expected or
intended. Unintended consequences are often negative and are due to systems
being more complex and interconnected than we may realize—especially
environmental and social systems.
 UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES
CAN BE GROUPED INTO THREE
:TYPES
• Unexpected benefit: a positive unexpected benefit (also referred to as luck, serendipity or a
windfall).
• Unexpected drawback: an unexpected detriment occurring in addition to the desired effect of the
policy.
• (E.G., While irrigation schemes provide people with water for agriculture, they can increase
waterborne diseases that have devastating health effects, such as schistosomiasis).
• Perverse result: a perverse effect contrary to what was originally intended (when an intended
solution makes a problem worse). This is sometimes referred to as 'backfire'.
• CAUSES OF UNITED CONSEQUENCES:

• Ignorance, making it impossible to anticipate everything, thereby leading to

incomplete analysis.

• Following habits that worked in the past but may not apply to the current
situation.

• The fear of some consequence which drives people to find solutions before the
problem occurs, thus the non-occurrence of the problem is not anticipated.
 EVIDENCE-BASED DEBATE ON GMO
• Pros of GMO:
• Manufacturers use genetic modification to give foods desirable traits. For example,
they have designed two new varieties of apple that turn less brown when cut or
bruised.
• The reasoning usually involves making crops more resistant to diseases as they
grow. Manufacturers also engineer produce to be more nutritious or tolerant of
herbicides.
• Crop protection is the main rationale behind this type of genetic modification. Plants
that are more resistant to diseases spread by insects or viruses result in higher yields
for farmers and a more attractive product.
• Genetically modification can also increase nutritional value or enhance flavor.

• All these factors contribute to lower costs for the consumer. They can also ensure
that more people have access to quality food.
 :CONS OF GMO
• Because genetically engineering foods is a relatively new practice, little is
known about the long-term effects and safety.

• There are many purported downsides, but the evidence varies, and the main
health issues associated with gmo foods are hotly debated. Research is ongoing.

• This section discusses the evidence for a range of drawbacks that people often
associate with gmo foods.
 Allergic reactions
• Some people believe that GMO foods have more potential to trigger allergic
reactions. This is because they may contain genes from an allergen — a food that
prompts an allergic reaction.

• The world health organization (who) discourage genetic engineers from using

dna from allergens unless they can prove that the gene itself does not cause the
problem.

• It is worth noting that there have been no reports of allergic effects of any gmo
foods currently on the market.
• Cancer

• Some researchers believe that eating GMO foods can contribute to the
development of cancer. They argue that because the disease is caused by
mutations in DNA, it is dangerous to introduce new genes into the body.

• The american cancer society (acs) have said that there is no evidence for this.
However, they note that no evidence of harm is not the same as proof of safety
and that reaching a conclusion will require more research.
 ANTIBACTERIAL RESISTANCE
• There is concern that genetic modification, which can boost a crop's resistance to
disease or make it more tolerant to herbicides, could affect the ability of people
to defend against illness.
• There is a small chance that the genes in food can transfer to cells the body or
bacteria in the gut. Some GMO plants contain genes that make them resistant to
certain antibiotics. This resistance could pass on to humans.
• There is growing concern globally that people are becoming increasingly
resistant to antibiotics. There is a chance that GMO foods could be contributing
to this crisis.
• The who have said that the risk of gene transfer is low. As a precaution, however,
it has set guidelines for the manufacturers of GMO foods.
 OUTCROSSING

• Outcrossing refers to the risk of genes from certain GMO plants mixing with
those of conventional crops.

• There have been reports of low levels of gmo crops approved as animal feed or
for industrial use being found in food meant for human consumption.
 GM CROPS
• GM crops and human health:
• GM crops can be used to improve human nutritional standards, by incorporating
genes for certain proteins, vitamin or vaccines
• Additionally, GM crops can be manufactaured that lack common natural
allergens or toxins
• However, the inclusion or removal of certain genes could trigger unexpected
adverse health reactions in some individuals
• Currently, not all foods with GM components are labelled, making informed
decisions of use difficult for consumers
 GM CROPS AND ECONOMIC
:CONSEQUENCES
• GM crops can include genes to enable them to grow in a wider range of environments
• (E.G. Drought / frost / salinity resistance)
• GM crops can be manufactured to produce greater yields
• (crops can potentially grow larger and faster)

• GM crops can include genes which slow the rate of spoiling, leading to longer shelf lives for GM
foods

• GM crops may possess resistance to certain viruses or produce toxins to pests

• (reducing need for the use of pesticides)
• Herbicide resistant crops can be used to allow for the easier killing of weeds
(which compete with crops for soil nutrients)

• Overall, an improved yield, reduction in farming costs and ability to farm more
land will provide an economic benefit to farmers

• However, patent protection allows biotech companies to restrict the use of seeds
and force farmers to pay high prices for use
 :GM CROPS AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
• The ability to farm a wider range of environments with GM crops will
potentially reduce the need for associated deforestation

• Also, the generation of pest-resistant crops means that less chemical insecticides
will be released into the environment

• However, GM crops could potentially reduce biodiversity in a region by

competing with indigenous plant life
• Furthermore, proteins or toxins produced by GM crops could negatively affect
certain organisms within the ecosystem

• Cross-pollination by GM crops could also result in the formation of herbicide-

resistant weeds and grasses

• GM crops with pest toxins could also accelerate the evolution of resistant pest
species
Summary of Issues Associated with Genetically
:Modified Crops
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

THE PROTEIN-MAKING PROCESS

• DNA is the primary genetic material contained within your cells
and in nearly all organisms. It's used to create proteins
during protein synthesis, which is a multi-step process that takes
the coded message of DNA and converts it into a usable protein
molecule.

• DNA structure

• DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide

contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The
four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine
(G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines
dna's instructions, or genetic code. 
Making a Protein—Transcription
• First Step: Copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA
called Transcription
Why? DNA has the genetic code for the protein that needs to be
made, but proteins are made by the ribosomes—ribosomes are
outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm.
DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double stranded), but RNA
can leave the nucleus (single stranded).
• Part of DNA temporarily unzips and is used as a
template to assemble complementary nucleotides
into messenger RNA (mRNA).
• mRNA then goes through the pores of the nucleus with
the DNA code and attaches to the ribosome.
MAKING PROTEINS

STEP 2: TRANSLATION
Making a Protein—Translation
• Second Step: Decoding of mRNA into a protein is called
Translation.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids from the
cytoplasm to the ribosome.
These amino acids come from the food we eat. Proteins we
eat are broken down into individual amino acids and then
simply rearranged into new proteins according to the
needs and directions of our DNA.
• A series of three adjacent bases
in an mRNA molecule codes for a
specific amino acid—called a
codon.

• Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides Amino acid

that are complementary to the
codon in mRNA.

• Each tRNA codes for a different

amino acid.
Anticodon
• mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and tRNA carrying
amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
• Amino acids are joined together to make a protein.

Polypeptide = Protein
Use one of the codon charts on the next page to find the amino acid
sequence coded for by the following mRNA strands.

CAC/CCA/UGG/UGA

___________/___________/___________/__________
__

AUG/AAC/GAC/UAA

___________/___________/___________/__________
__
 CAC/CCA/UGG/UGA
___________/___________/___________/____________
2nd Base

1st Base

3rd Base
Protein Synthesis
 PLASMIDS
• Plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from
a cell's chromosomal DNA.

• Plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells, and they also occur in some
eukaryotes.

• Plasmids are usually about one thousand to a hundred thousand nucleotides long

• They act as independent self-replicating molecular operators within bacteria.

• While the bacteria's chromosome contains all the necessary genes to code for the
bacteria's existence, plasmids provide an effective way by which traits not
contained in the chromosome can be passed from bacteria to bacteria.

• For example: the antibiotic resistance.

 
• When a bacteria containing these plasmids dies, it breaks open and liberates
these plasmids to the outside environment and they are often taken up by other
bacteria that then acquire the traits coded for by the plasmids.
  
SELECTIVE BREEDING (ARTIFICIAL
SELECTION)
• It is a process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to
selectively develop particular characteristics by choosing which typically animal
or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together.
 
Desired characteristics chosen for usefulness and appearance:
• Insect resistance in food and crops.
• Animals which produce more meat and milk.
• Domestic dogs with a gentle nature.