Vertical Alignment

CE 453 Lecture 20
Sources: A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets
(The Green Book). Washington, DC.
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation
Officials, 2001 4th Edition, and
FHWA’s Flexibility in Highway
Design

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 Coordination of Vertical and
Horizontal Alignment
 Curvature and grade should be in
proper balance
– Avoid
 Excessive curvature to achieve flat grades

 Excessive grades to achieve flat curvature

 Vertical curvature should be

coordinated with horizontal
 Sharp horizontal curvature should
not be introduced at or near the top
of a pronounced crest vertical curve Image source:
http://www.webs1.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanu

– Drivers may not perceive change in

al/Chapters/geometricdesign/theoryandcon
cepts/DescendingGrades.htm

horizontal alignment esp. at night

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 Coordination of Vertical and
Horizontal Alignment
 Sharp horizontal curvature should not
be introduced near bottom of steep
grade near the low point of a
pronounced sag vertical curve
– Horizontal curves appear distorted
– Vehicle speeds (esp. trucks) are highest
at the bottom of a sag vertical curve
– Can result in erratic motion

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 Coordination of Vertical and
Horizontal Alignment
 On two-lane roads when passing is
allowed, need to consider provision of
passing lanes
– Difficult to accommodate with certain
arrangements of horizontal and vertical
curvature
– need long tangent sections to assure
sufficient passing sight distance

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 Coordination of Vertical and
Horizontal Alignment
 At intersections where sight distance needs
to be accommodated, both horizontal and
vertical curves should be as flat as practical
 In residential areas, alignment should
minimize nuisance to neighborhood
– Depressed highways are less visible
– Depressed highways produce less noise
– Horizontal alignments can increase the buffer
zone between roadway and cluster of homes

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 Coordination of Vertical and
Horizontal Alignment
 When possible alignment should
enhance scenic views of the natural
and manmade environment
– Highway should lead into not away from
outstanding views
– Fall towards features of interest at low
elevation
– Rise towards features best seen from
below or in silhouette against the sky

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Coordination of Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
 Coordination of horizontal and vertical
alignment should begin with preliminary
design
 Easier to make adjustments at this stage
 Designer should study long, continuous
stretches of highway in both plan and
profile and visualize the whole in three
dimensions

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Coordination of Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment

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Coordination of Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
 Should be consistent with the
topography
 Preserve developed properties along
the road
 Incorporate community values
 Follow natural contours of the land

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 Good Coordination of Horizontal
and Vertical Alignment
 Does not affect
aesthetic, scenic,
historic, and cultural
resources along the way
 Enhances attractive
scenic views
– Rivers
– Rock formations
– Parks
– Historic sites
– Outstanding buildings

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 Vertical Curves
 Connect roadway grades (tangents)
 Grade (rise over run)
– 10% grade increases 10’ vertically for
every 100’ horizontal

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 Vertical Curves
 Ascending grade:
– Frequency of
collisions increases
significantly when
vehicles traveling
more than 10 mph
below the average
traffic speed are
present in the
traffic stream

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 Example
 If a highway with
traffic normally
running at 65 mph has
an inclined section
with a 3% grade, what
is the maximum
length of grade that
can be used before
the speed of the
larger vehicles is
reduced to 55 mph?

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 Example

 a 3% grade
causes a
reduction in
speed of 10
mph after
1400 feet

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 Climbing lanes
 When flatter grades cannot be accommodated,
consider climbing lane when all 3 of the
following criteria are met (AASHTO):
– Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles
per hour.
– Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per
hour.
– One of the following conditions exists:
 A 15 km/h or greater speed reduction is expected for a
typical heavy truck.
 Level-of-service E or F exists on the grade.
 A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced
when moving from the approach segment to the grade.

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 Descending Grades
 Problem is increased speeds and loss of control
for heavy trucks
 Runaway vehicle ramps are often designed and
included at critical locations along the grade
 Ramps placed before each turn that cannot be
negotiated at runaway speeds
 Ramps should also be placed along straight
stretches of roadway, wherever unreasonable
speeds might be obtained
 Ramps located on the right side of the road when
possible

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 Maximum Grades
 Passenger vehicles can easily
negotiate 4 to 5% grade without
appreciable loss in speed
 Upgrades: trucks average 7%
decrease in speed
 Downgrades: trucks average speed
increase 5%

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 Vertical Curves
 Parabolic shape
 VPI, VPC, VPT, +/- grade, L
 Types of crest and sag curves

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 Vertical Curves
 Crest – stopping, or passing sight distance
controls
 Sag – headlight/SSD distance, comfort,
drainage and appearance control
 Green Book vertical curves defined by K =
L/A = length of vertical curve/difference
in grades (in percent) = length to change
one percent in grade

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 Vertical Curve Equations
Parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c
Where:
y = roadway elevation at distance x
x = distance from beginning of vertical
curve
a = G2 – G1
L
b = G1
c = elevation of PVC
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 Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls
(Crest)
 Minimum length must provide stopping
sight distance S
 Two situations (both assume h1=3.5’ and
h2=2.0’)

Source: Transportation Engineering On-line Lab

Manual, http://www.its.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/

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Assistant with Target Rod (2ft object height)

Observer with
Sighting Rod (3.5
ft)
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 Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls
(Crest)

Note: for passing sight distance, use 2800

instead of 2158

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Example: Try SSD > L,
Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
(Assume grade = 0% for SSD)
SSD = 570feet ( see: Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = 2 (570’) – 2158’ = 600.5’
|(-1-3)|
S < L, so it doesn’t match condition
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Example: Assume SSD < L,
Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
Assuming average grade = 0%
SSD = 570 feet - ( Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = |(-3 - 1)| (570 ft)2 = 602 ft
2158
SSD < L, equation matches condition 30
 Evaluation of example:
 The AASHTO SSD distance equations
provided the same design length from either
equation in this special case. (600 compared
to 602 - this is not typical)
 Garber and Hoel recommend using the most
critical grade of - 1% for SSD computation.
– Resulting SSD would be: d = 573 ft
– Resulting minimum curve: L = 608 ft
 Difference between 602 and 608 is too
small to worry about

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Text example : g1 = + 3% g2 = -3%
Design speed of 60 mph
If SSD = 570’ (AASHTO – no grade
consideration)
Resulting minimum curve: L = 903 ft (S < L)
Consider grade per Garber and Hoel (p 693-694)
SSD, using - 3% grade, 598’
Resulting minimum curve L = 994 ft

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Assessment of grade adjustment

If sight distance is less than curve length, the driver

will be on an upgrade a greater portion of the distance
than on a down grade
(for eye ht = 3.5’ and object ht = 2.0 ft, 68% of the
distance between eye and object will be on + grade.)
For crest vertical curve, selecting a curve length based
on down grade SSD may produce an overly conservative
design length. 33
 AASHTO design tables
 Vertical curve length can also be found in
design tables

L = K *A
Where
K = length of curve per percent
algebraic difference in intersecting grade

Charts from Green Book

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From Green book 35
From Green book 36
 Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls
(Crest)
Since you do not at first know L, try
one of these equations and compare
to requirement, or use L = KA (see
tables and graphs in Green Book for a
given A and design speed)

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 Chart vs computed
From chart
V = 60 mph K = 151 ft / % change

For g1 = 3 g2 = - 1
A = |g2 – g1| = |-1 – 3| = 4

L = ( K * A) = 151 * 4 = 604
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 Sag Vertical Curves
 Sight distance is governed by night-
time conditions
– Distance on curve illuminated by
headlights need to be considered
 Driver comfort
 Drainage
 General appearance

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)
Headlight Illumination sight distance

S < L: L= AS2
400 + (3.5 * S)

S > L: L = 2S – (400 + 3.5S)

A

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

 For driver comfort use:

L > AV2
46.5
(limits g force to 1 fps/s)

 To consider general appearance use:

L > 100 A

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Sag Vertical Curve: Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3% to a
+3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet S>L
Determine whether S<L or S>L

L = 2(313.67 ft) – (400 + 2.5 x 313.67) = 377.70 ft

[3 – (-3)]
313.67 < 377.70, so condition does not apply

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Sag Vertical Curve: Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3%
to a +3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is
L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet

L= 6 x (313.67)2 = 394.12 ft
400 + 3.5 x 313.67
313.67 < 394.12, so condition applies

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Sag Vertical Curve: Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3%
to a +3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet
Testing for comfort:

L = AV2 = (6 x [40 mph]2) = 206.5 feet

46.5 46.5
Testing for appearance:
L = 100A = (100 x 6) = 600 feet

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

 For curb drainage, want min. of 0.3

percent grade within 50’ of low point
= need Kmax = 167 (US units)
 For appearance on high-type roads,
use min design speed of 50 mph (K =
100)
 As in crest, use min L = 3V

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 Other important issues:
 Use lighting if need to use shorter L
than headlight requirements
 Sight distance at under crossings

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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and –4% grade.
Design speed is 75 mph. Length = 2184.0 ft. Station at VPI is
345+ 60.00, elevation at VPI = 250 feet. Find elevations and
station for VPC (BVC) and VPT (EVC).
L/2 = 1092.0 ft
Station at VPC = [345 + 60.00] - [10 + 92.00] = 334 + 68.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPC: -0.03 x (2184/2) = - 32.76 feet
ElevationVPC = 250 – 32.76 = 217.24 feet
Station at VPT = [345 + 60.00] + [10 + 92.00] = 357 + 52.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPT = -0.04 x (2184/2) = - 43.68 feet
Elevation VPT = 250 – 43.68 = 206.32 feet

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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and –4%
grade. Design speed is 75 mph. Length = 2184.0 ft.
Station at VPI is 345+ 60.00, elevation at VPI = 250
feet. Station at VPC (BVC) is 334 + 60.00, Elevation
at VPC: 217.24 feet.
Calculate points along the vertical curve.
X = distance from VPC
Y= Ax2
200 L
Elevationtangent = elevation at VPC + distance x grade
Elevationcurve = Elevationtangent - Y

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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and
–4% grade. Design speed is 75 mph. Length =
2184.0 ft. Station at VPI is 345+ 60.00,
elevation at VPI = 250 feet. Find elevation on
the curve at a point 400 feet from VPC.

Y=Ax 2
= - 7 x (400 ft)2 = - 2.56 feet
200L 200 (2814)
Elevation at tangent = 206.32 + (400 x 0.03) =
218.32
Elevation on curve = 218.32 – 2.56 feet = 226.68’
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 Y

Calculating x from VPC, calculating tangent

elevation along +3% tangent
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 Y

Calculating x from VPT, calculating tangent

elevation along +4% tangent
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Source: Iowa DOT
Design Manual
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Source: Iowa DOT Design Manual
 Note: L is measured from here to here

Source: Iowa Not here 56

DOT Design
Manual