ILMU HAYAT PERTEMUAN

Sistem 4
Mekanikal
Pada Hewan
“CHAPTER 1”
B y : Eko Prasetyo, ST.,MT & H e n d r i Sukma, ST.,MT
Mengapa kita perlu mempelajari hewan??
• Hewan memberikan inspirasi bagi manusia
• Hewan merupakan karakteristik yang sempurna untuk
ditiru dan atau dijadikan objek penelitian bagi manusia
bagi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan
• Hewan pendamping hidup manusia (hewan piaraan)
Ruang Lingkup Ilmu Mekanikal/Sistem
Mekanikal (Mechanical System)
Gaya dan Gerak (Force and
Motion )
Unbalanced
Forces
Jenis-
Jenis
Gerak
 The Movements of Animals

When Muscles Contract

They Produce Movements:

Voluntary
Involuntary (Locomotor
System)

Invertebrates
With No Arthropods Echinoderms Vertebrates
Exoskeletons
Involuntary Movements Voluntary
(Gerakan yang tidak (Gerakan
movements yang
disengaja)
 These occur in the internal organs.  disengaja)
These are carried out by the locomotor system.
 An example is the beating of a heart.  They allow an animal to move from one place to
another.

The movement of the heart

pumps blood around the
organism.
The Locomotor System In Invertebrates With No Exoskeleton
(hewan tanpa tulang belakang dan kerangka luar)
 The muscles form part of the walls of the body.
 By contracting them, the animal’s shape changes and it can move.

1: When squid’s muscles

relax, water enters its body.

2: When muscles contract,

shooting out water, the animal is
propelled backwards.
The Locomotor System In Arthropods
(hewan yang memiliki ciri kaki beruas, berbuku,
atau bersegmen)
 Their muscles are connected to the internal side of the
articulated exoskeleton.

2: When these muscles contract, 1: Arthropods’ muscles are

they pull on parts of the connected to the exoskeleton.
exoskeleton (in this case, the
wings), enabling the animal to
move from one place to another.
The Locomotor System In Echinoderms
(hewan laut tanpa tulang belakang yang kulitnya berduri,
berbentuk simetri radial, lazimnya pentameral/terbagi lima)
 Their muscles are associated with a system of tubes and ampullae (sacs) full of water knows as
the ambulacral system.

Tube foot

1: The pressure on the

ampullae pushes the tube
feet out of the animal’s
body.

2: The starfish
moves.
 The Locomotor System in Vertebrates
(hewan bertulang belakang)
 Their muscles are anchored to parts of the internal skeleton.

1: The muscles 2: The limbs move, and

contract and pull the so does the animal.
bones.
Animals; Mechanical
Similarity
 Geometric Similarity
 Two shapes are geometrically similar if one could be made
identical to the other by multiplying all length dimensions by
the same factor. For example, a triangle with sides 3, 4, and 5
cm long is geometrically similar to one with sides of 6, 8, and
10 cm.
 Imagine two animals that are geometrically similar to each
other, one a precise half-scale model of the other.
 The larger one is twice as long as the smaller and has twice
the circumference, so has 2 × 2 = 4 times the surface area. It is
twice as long, twice as wide, and twice as high as the smaller
one, so has 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 times the volume and (if the animals
are made of the same materials) eight times its mass.
 More generally, geometrically similar animals (or other
objects) have areas proportional to (length) and volumes
proportional to (length); and if they are made of the same
materials they have masses also proportional to (length).
 This implies that lengths are proportional to (mass) and areas
to (mass).
Geometric
Similarity
 Dynamic
•Similarity
Lions are much larger than domestic cats and take
fewer strides per second, but apart from that the
movements of a galloping lion are very like those of
a galloping cat. Large salmon beat their tails at lower
frequencies than minnows, but may leave similar
patterns of eddies in their wake. The concept of
dynamic similarity will help us in comparisons like
these and will enable us to make generalizations
about the movements of animals of different sizes.
• Two shapes are geometrically similar if one could be
made identical to the other by multiplying all lengths
by some factor λ. By an extension of the same kind
of thinking, two motions are dynamically similar if
one could be made identical to the other by
multiplying all lengths by a factor λ, all times by a
factor τ and all forces by a factor φ. As an example of
dynamically similar motion, think of two pendulums
of different lengths swinging through the same
angle.
 This tells us that for two motions to be dynamically similar, the
following condition must be satisfied.
 Let m1, m2 be corresponding masses in the two motions (for
example, the masses of corresponding parts of two animals’
bodies); let v1, v2 be corresponding velocities (for example, the
velocities of corresponding body parts at corresponding stages
of the motion); let F1, F2 be corresponding forces (for example,
peak forces on the feet) and let l1, l2 be corresponding lengths
(for example, stride lengths).
 If the motions are dynamically similar,

 Both motions must have the same value of mv2/Fl.

Elastic Similarity
And Stress
Similarity
 Animals and plants of different sizes
should be built in such a way as to
deform under gravity in geometrically
similar ways; gravity should cause
equal strains in corresponding parts of
their bodies.
 Elastic Similarity
 For example, Fig. 4.5A shows a branch of length l that bends elastically under its own
weight, depressing its end by Δh. The theory of elastic similarity predicts that branches
of different sizes will have equal values of Δh/l.
 The theory is an attractive one for trees. Gravity is one of the principal forces they
have to withstand (the other is drag exerted on them by wind).
 Less energy is needed to grow a thin branch than to grow a thick one of equal length,
but too thin a branch will bend so much that its leaves are not wel positioned to
receive sunlight.
 It seems likely that the optimum compromise would result in branches of different
sizes being elastically similar.
 Figure 4.6A represents an imaginary one-legged terrestrial animal that will help us to
work out how stress similarity might be possible.
 A vertical force equal to the animal’s weight mg acts on the foot, exerting a moment
mgl sin θ about the joint halfway up the leg.
 The muscle has cross-sectional area A and has a moment arm r about the joint, so
Fig. 4.5. Diagrams of (A) a branch and (B) a mammal,
when it exerts a stress σ the force is Aσ and the moment about the joint is Aσr. showing elastic deformations due to gravity. Broken
 Balancing the moments about the joint gives; outlines show their shapes as they would be in the
absence of gravity.
Stress
Similarity
 If animals of different sizes were
geometrically similar, A would be
proportional to (body mass)2/3, l and r
would be proportional to (body
mass)1/3, and θ would be constant;
stresses in a 3000-kg elephant would
be ten times as high as in a 3-kg
rabbit.

Fig. 4.6. Diagrams of (A) a terrestrial animal, represented as

having only one leg, and (B) a flying animal seen in front view.
These diagrams are used in a discussion of the stresses in bones
and muscles of animals of different sizes.
 The force mg on the foot (Fig.4.6A) has an axial component
mg cos θ along the length of the lower leg bone and a
transverse component mg sin θ at right angles to it.
 The axial component compresses the bone along its length
and the transverse component bends it.
 The transverse component of force in Fig. 4.6A exerts bending
moments on the lower leg bone, which increase from zero at
the distal end of the bone to a maximum value of mgl sin θ
close to the joint.
 The peak stress in a cross section of a bent beam (or a bent
bone) is Bending moment/Section modulus.
 Section modulus is a quantity that depends on the diameter
and shape of the cross section; for cross sections of the same
shape, it is proportional to (diameter)3.
 Thus, the peak stress in the bone is proportional to (mgl/d3)
sin θ. If animals of different sizes were geometrically similar to
each other, l and d would both be proportional
Walking, Running, and
Hopping
Berjalan, Berlati, dan
Melompat)

Fig. 7.3. Horses (A) trotting and (B) galloping.

From Gambaryan (1974).
 Climbing and Jumping
(memanjat dan Melompat)

Fig. 8.1. Models used in computer simulations of

standing jumps. These models jump vertically, by
Fig. 8.5. (A) A free-body diagram of a squirrel climbing a tree extending their legs. (A) the original model with two
trunk. (B) A diagram of an insect foot pad attached to a surface segments in each leg, and (B) a version with three
by capillary adhesion. segments. From Alexander (1995b).
 Crawling and Burrowing
(Merangkak dan
Menggali)

Fig. 9.1. Drawings from video films of Pleurotya caterpillars about 25 mm Fig. 9.3. Diagrams representing successive positions of a bivalve
long (A) crawling forward at 10 mm/s, (B) crawling backward, and (C) mollusc, during burrowing. Thick lines represent active muscles. From
rolling backward. Stippling indicates segments bearing appendages that Alexander (1982).
are off the ground. From Brackenbury (1997).
 Reptiles
 Snakes use a different gait, concertina locomotion, to crawl along narrow
channels. This is a form of two-anchor crawling, in which the anterior and
posterior parts of the body are anchored in turn. With the anterior parts bent
to jam them against the sides of the channel (Fig. 9.4, 0.00 s) the posterior
parts are drawn forward.
 Then with the posterior parts jammed against the sides of the channel, the Fig. 9.4. Successive positions, drawn from video images, of a
anterior parts straighten and reach forward (Fig. 9.4, 0.43 s). Jayne and Davis black racer snake (Coluber) concertina crawling in a narrow
channel. From Jayne and Davis (1991).
(1991) filmed Coluber of mean mass 118 g (length 0.94 m) crawling in a
treadmill formed as a circular channel, narrow enough to induce the snakes to
use concertina crawling. The maximum burst speed that they observed was
0.21 m/s, in a channel 7 cm wide.
 Sidewinding is another crawling technique used by snakes (Fig. 9.5). Waves of
bending are passed posteriorly along the body as in serpentine crawling, but
the body does not slide over the ground. Instead, each section of the body is
lifted from one resting place to the next.
 In Fig. 9.5, stippled parts of the body are stationary, resting on the ground, and
parts that are left white are moving and off the ground. This technique is
effective on loose sand and on smooth surfaces, on which serpentine
locomotion is difficult because they do not provide the snake with anything to Fig. 9.5. Outlines traced from video images of Crotalus
cerastes sidewinding. The snake is about 0.5 m long, and is
push against. Many snakes sidewind on surfaces of this kind, but for a few,
traveling at 0.17 m/s toward the right of the page. Only
such as Crotalus, it is the normal mode of locomotion. stippled parts of the body are resting on the ground. The cross
is a paint mark. From Secor et al. (1992).
 Gliding and
(Meluncur
Soaring dan Membubung Tinggi)
Drag
 Drag is a force that resists the movement of bodies through fluids. It is due partly to the work that has to be
done against the viscosity of the fluid, as the body moves through it; and partly to the work that is done
giving kinetic energy to the fluid that is left moving in the body’s wake.
 The relative importance of viscous forces and inertial forces depends on the Reynolds number, which takes
account of the size of the body, the speed of movement, and the properties of the fluid.
 The wings and bodies of flying animals move through the air with Reynolds numbers high enough for
inertial forces to be dominant. In this range of Reynolds numbers, the drag Fdrag on a body moving with
velocity v through a fluid of density ρ can be calculated using an equation that we have already met; where A
is an area that can be defined in various ways, and Cdrag is the corresponding drag coefficient.
 Both for aircraft and for flying animals, the largest
aerodynamic forces act on the wings, and the area
generally used as A is the plan area of the wings,
stippled in Figure 10.1A. Notice that this area includes
the strip of body between the wing bases.
 The drag coefficients for wings depend on the
Reynolds number and on how much lift they are
providing.

Fig. 10.1. Outlines of (A) an albatross and (B) a condor, showing the
meanings of some terms. The stippled area in (A) is the plan area of
the wings. From Alexander (1989b).