Movement & Support:

Skeletal System

user  Philippine Science High School – Bicol Region Campus  Biology 1 (Fundamentals of Biology)
Introduction
Discovering life and appreciating how life was formed are very interesting topics in biology. Biology as the study of life dealt with organisms. Talking
about organisms, survival is essential to them. One way to survive is for them to adapt to their environment by utilizing specialized structures. This
adaptation is related to their habitat. This discussion in biology is interesting for the students for this will unravel the parts that have been
developed and specialized in the phylogeny. Using self-learning kits like module and Strategic Intervention Materials to study the said processes elevate
learning of the students in higher level. These materials provided new media for learning in biology with or without the aid of the teacher. In this module,
the following objectives will be realized:

Objectives
1. Discuss the different skeletal systems of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms.
2. Relate the skeletal structure to its function (movement and support) according to the adaptation the organism needs.
3. Identify representative invertebrate and vertebrate organisms for every type of skeletal system.
4. Explain the processes each structure undergoes to achieve the functions, movement and support.

I. Direction
Read carefully the topic and subtopics presented in this module and follow the instruction per activity. You will be given clues which will help you
in answering and/or performing the given activities. Be prepared for an evaluation related to the module. Put your answer in a one whole sheet
intermediate paper. See schedule below.

Schedule of evaluation & Submission of answers

April 30, 2019 (evaluation) April 23, 2019 (submission of answers)

References
Miller, S. A. and Harley, J. P. (2005). Zoology (6th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pickering, W.R.(1995). Advanced Biology Revision handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Raven H. R. and Johnson, G. B. (2002). Biology (6 th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill
  Movement & Support:

Example of organisms with hydrostatic skeleton:

Movement &  SEA ANEMONE has contracting muscles push against a
hydrostatic skeleton, and the transmitted force generates
Support: body movements (see figure 1)

Skeletal System

As organisms evolved from the ancestral to the multicellular

animals, body size increased dramatically. Systems involved in
movement and support evolved simultaneously with the
increase in body size.

Four cell types contribute to movement: (1) amoeboid cells,

(2) flagellated cells, (3) ciliated cells, and (4) muscle cells. With
Figure 1. The Sea Anemone
respect to support, organisms have three kinds of skeletons:
(1) fluid hydrostatic skeleton, (2) rigid exoskeleton, and (3)
rigid endoskeletons. These skeletal systems also function in
animal movement that requires muscles working in opposition
(antagonism) to each other.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM OF INVERTEBRATES

Hydrostatic Skeleton
(Gr. hydro, water + statikos, to stand)
 This is the core of liquid (water or a body fluid such as
blood) surrounded by a tension-resistant sheath of
longitudinal and/or circular muscles.
 Similar to a water-filled balloon because the force exerted
against the incompressible fluid in one region can be
transmitted to other regions.
 Can take many forms and shapes, such as:
Gastrovascular cavity of acoelomates
Rhynchoel in nemertines
Pseudocoelom in aschelminths
Coelom in annelids
Hemocoel in molluscs

Figure 2. Hydrostatic Skeleton of Sea Anemone

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 EARTHWORM (Lubricus terrestris), contracts its

longitudinal and circular muscles alternately, creating
rhythm that moves it through the soil. See figure 3.

Figure 3.Hydrostatic Skeleton of earthworm

 Function: keeps the body from collapsing when the

muscles contract.

Exoskeletons
(Gr. exo, outside + skeleton)

General Functions:
 For locomotor because they provide sites for muscle
attachment and counterforces for muscle movements.
 It supports and protects the body (secondary function)
Arthropods
Exoskeleton’s Functions
 The epidermis of the body wall secretes a thick, hard
cuticle that waterproofs the body.
 The cuticle also protects and supports the animal’s soft
internal organs.
Figure 4. Dragonfly nymph Exoskeleton
Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp)
Exoskeleton’s Functions:
 The exoskeleton contains calcium carbonate crystals that
make it hard and inflexible – except the joints.
 Provide also shieldlike protection from enemies and
resistance to general wear and tear.
 Prevent drying out of internal tissue.

Figure 5. Old exoskeleton of Crayfish

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Reflection: This evolutionary adaptation contributed to arthropods’

successful colonization of land. Exoskeletons, however limit an
Certain regions of the arthropod body have a thin, flexible
animal’s growth.
cuticle, and joints (articulations) See figure 7. These areas that
pairs of antagonistic muscles function through a system of
Adaptation: Most animals shed the exoskeleton periodically, as
levers to produce coordinated movement.
arthropods do when they molt. See figure 6.

Figure 7. Articulation of Arthropods

Resilin or “animal rubber” is a highly elastic protein found

among arthropod joints such as wing joints of flying beetles
and the joints of fleas involved in jumping. It also stores energy
on compression and then releases the energy to produce
movement.

Reflection: The development of a jointed exoskeleton that permitted

flight is one of the reasons for the success of arthropods.

Endoskeletons
(Gr. endo, inside + skeleton)

 Sponges’ endoskeleton is consists of mineral spicules and

fibers of sponging that keep the body from collapsing.
Figure 6. Arthropod Molting
(figure 8) Since adult sponges attach to the substrate,

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they have no need for muscles attached to the
endoskeleton.
 Endoskeleton of echinoderms (sea stars and sea urchins)
consists of small, calcareous plates called ossicles.
Figure 8. Endoskeleton of Starfish
Mineralized tissues and the Invertebrates
 Over two-thirds of the living species of animals that
contain mineralized tissues are invertebrates. Most of
them have inorganic calcium carbonate crystals embedded
in a collagen matrix. (vertebrates have calcium phosphate
crystals)
 Bone, dentin, cartilage and enamel were all present in
Ordovician ostracoderms.
Cartilage
 It is the supportive tissue that makes up the major skeletal
component of jawless fishes such as hagfishes and
lampreys, and sharks and rays.
Function:
 Gives speed and agility to predatory fishes since it is light.
 Provides buoyancy without the need for a swim bladder.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM OF VERTEBRATES
Two main types of supportive tissue:
a. Cartilage
b. Bone
Cartilage
This is a specialized type of connective tissue which is consists
of cells (chondrocytes), fibers and a cellular matrix.
Function:
 a site for muscle attachment,
 aids in movement at joints,
 provides support and
 transmits the force of muscular contraction from one
part of the body to another during movement.
Bone or Osseous Tissue
Description:
Bone (osseous) is a specialized connective tissue that is more
rigid than other connective tissues because its homogenous,
organic ground substance contains inorganic salts (mainly
calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate). When an animal
needs the calcium or phosphate stored within bones,
metabolic reactions (under endocrine control) release the
required amount.
Function:
 It provides a site for muscle attachment and transmits
force of muscular contraction from one part of the body
to another during movement.
 Support the internal organs of many animals.
 Store reserve calcium and phosphate, and manufacture
red blood cells and some white blood cells.
Bone cells (osteocytes) are in minute chambers called
lacunae (sing. Lacuna), which are arranged in concentric rings
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around osteonic canals (formely called Harvesian systems). The Skeleton of Fishes
See Figure 9.

Note: Both cartilaginous and bony endoskeletons first appeared in

the vertebrates.

What should be the characteristics of the fish skeleton in able

to survive in its habitat?
Answer: Since water has a buoyant effect on the fish body, the
requirement for skeletal support is not as demanding in these
vertebrates as it is in terrestrial vertebrates.

Although most vertebrates have well-defined vertebral column

(the reason they are called “vertebrates”), the jawless
vertebrates do not.

Examples of Jawless fishes are lampreys and hagfishes. The

lampreys only have isolated cartilaginous blocks along the
notochord and hagfishes do not even have these.

Most jawed fishes have an axial skeleton (it forms longitudinal

axis of the body) that includes a notochord, ribs, and
cartilaginous or bony vertebrae. Muscles used in locomotion
attach to the axial skeleton.

Figure 9. The harvesian system

These cells communicate with nearby cells by means of
cellular processes passing through small channels called
canaliculi (sing. canacaliculus)

Figure 11. Lateral View of the Perch skeleton (fish

endoskeleton)

The skeleton of Tetrapods

What is a tetrapod?
A taxonomic designation that refers to extant (still existing)
Figure 10. Transverse section of Harvesian canal showing also amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals and their closest
the Canaliculi common ancestor.

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Tetrapods must lift themselves to walk on land. The first Activity Card No. 1
amphibians needed support to replace the buoyancy of water.
Before you proceed to the next page, Identify the following parts of
Human Endoskeleton.

Figure 12. The Tetrapod Endoskeleton

For the earliest terrestrial animals, support and locomotion were

difficult and complicated process. Adaptations for support and
movement on land occurred over a period of approximately 200
million years.

During this evolution, the tetrapod endoskeleton became

modified for support on land. This added support resulted
from the specializations of the intervertebral disks that
articulate with adjoining vertebrae. The intervertebral disks
help hold the vertebral column together, and they also absorb
shock and provide joint mobility. Bone replaced cartilage in the
The Human Endoskeleton
ribs, which became more rigid. The various types of connective
tissue that connect to the axial skeleton helped keep elevated
The human endoskeleton has two major parts:
portion from sagging. Appendages became elongated for
1) The axial skeleton – made up of skull, vertebral column,
support on a hard surface, and changes in the shoulder enabled
sternum and ribs
the neck to move more freely.
2) The appendicular skeleton – composed of the appendages,
the pectoral gridle and the pelvic girdles. These girdles
attach the upper and lower appendages to the axial
skeleton.

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Function of Human Skeletal System

• Supports the body

• Protects the vital organs
• Helps to produce red blood cells
• Acts as levers in locomotion
• Provides surface for muscle
attachment
• Storage of salts and minerals

Figure13. Bone of the skull

Figure 15. Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Figure 14. The Rib Cage

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Joints

 Bony ends covered with hyaline cartilage

 Ligaments bind the bone together
 Joint cavity enclosed by a capsule-synovial membrane
 Cavity contains lubricant fluid-synovial fluid

Figure 17. Typical Synovial joint

Types of joints

Fixed joints Mobile joints

Figure 16. Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Ball & Socket joint,
Skull, Sliding joint,
Vertebra Hinge joint,
Pivot joint

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Types of
Ball & Socket joint Hinge joint

Activity Card No. 2

Identify the type of bone which will match on the listed functions
Sliding joint Pivot joint
(write in column B). Use the illustrations of skeletal system of
human as clue to answer this activity. Write also if the bone belongs
to axial or appendicular skeletons (Column C).

Column A Column B Column C

1. Supports the body

Figure 18. Types of Mobile Joints
2. Protects the vital organs
3. Help to produce red blood cells
4. Acts as levers in the locomotion
5. Provide Surface for muscle attachment
6. Storage of salt and minerals

Submit your answer in all the activities in a one whole sheet of

intermediate paper

Thanks and enjoy reading.

Skeletal System
For additional Information please read the next page.

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