Anatomy and Physiology (LECTURE NOTES) CSU – BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Levels of Organization, Animal Tissues and

Homeostasis
Overview: Characteristics of Life

 Movement - self initiated change in position, motion of internal parts

 Responsiveness (irritability) - Ability to sense changes within, or around the organism
and react to them
 Growth - increase in body size
 Reproduction - Parents produce offspring / producing new individuals
 Respiration - Obtaining oxygen (O2), using it to release energy from food substances, and
getting rid of wastes
 Digestion - Chemically changing (breaking down) food substances, and getting rid of
wastes
 Absorption - Passage of Digested products (food substances) through membranes and
into body fluids
 Circulation - Movement of substances throughout the body
 Assimilation - Changing absorbed substances into chemically different substances
 Excretion - Removal of wastes

Levels of Organization -

From simplest to complex:

Living things are highly organized and structured,
following a hierarchy that can be examined on a
scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest
and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of
a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form
molecules which are chemical structures
consisting of at least two atoms held together by
one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that
are biologically important are macromolecules,
large molecules that are typically formed by
polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that
is made by combining smaller units called
monomers, which are simpler than
macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule
is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the
instructions for the structure and functioning of all
living organisms.

From Organelles to Biosphere

Macromolecules can form aggregates within a cell that are surrounded by membranes; these
are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of
these include: mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions.
Mitochondria produce energy to power the cell while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize
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the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells, and the cell itself is
the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is
why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they
have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they
obtain the materials they need to reproduce). Some organisms consist of a single cell and
others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are
single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei; in contrast, the
cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus.

In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying
out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing
a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ
system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals
have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the
body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels.
Furthermore, organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an
organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered
organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population.
For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the
population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area.
For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also
insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a
particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest
form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the
living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment
such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is
the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land,
water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Taken together, all of these levels
comprise the biological levels of organization, which range from organelles to the biosphere.

Overview Tissues:

Classifications of Tissues:
The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues; epithelium, connective,
muscular, and nervous tissues. These tissues vary in their composition and their function. A
basic understanding of the role of each tissue makes understanding the specific functions
easier.

1. Epithelium- lines and covers surfaces

2. Connective tissue- protect, support, and bind together
3. Muscular tissue- produces movement
4. Nervous tissue- receive stimuli and conduct impulses
Epithelium:
Epithelium forms the coverings of surfaces of the body. As such, it serves many purposes,
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including protection, adsorption, excretion, secretion, filtration, and sensory reception. When
considering the characteristics that make a tissue epithelium, it is important to think about the
following:
Polarity- Epithelium is arranged so there is one free surface (apical surface) and one attached
surface (basal surface)
Cellular nature- Cells in epithelium fit closely together side by side and sometimes atop each
other to form sheets of cells. These sheets are held together by specialized junctions.
Supported by connective tissue- Attachment to a layer of connective tissue at the basal
surface forms a layer called the basement membrane, an adhesive layer formed by
secretions from the epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells.
Avascular- Epithelium typically lacks its own blood supply.
Regeneration- Epithelium cells can regenerate if proper nourished.

Classification of epithelium is based on the shape of the cells and the arrangement of the cells
within the tissue. Typically, the arrangement of the cells is stated first, then the shape, and is
followed by “epithelium” to complete the naming (Ex. Simple Squamous Epithelium).

Arrangements:
Simple- Cells are found in a
single layer attached to the
basement membrane
Stratified- Cells are found in 2
or more layers stacked atop
each other
Pseudostratified- a single layer
of cells that appears to be
multiple layers due to variance
in height and location of the
nuclei in the cells.
Transitional- cells are rounded
and can slide across one
another to allow stretching

Shapes:
Squamous- (Latin, squama-
scale)- flat, thin, scale-like cells
Cuboidal- cells that have a
basic cube shape. Typically the
cell's height and width are about
equal.
Columnar- tall, rectangular or
column-shaped cells. Typically
taller than they are wide.
Special Features of Epithelium:
Cilia- (singular= cilium, Latin= eyelash)- hair-like appendages attached to the apical surface of
cells that act as sensory structures or to produce movement.
Goblet cells- specialized cells that produce mucus to lubricate and protect the surface of an
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organ
Villi- (singular= villus, Latin= shaggy hair)- finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial
layer in some organs. They help to increase surface area allowing for faster and more efficient
adsorption.
Microvilli- smaller projections that arise from the cell's surface that also increase surface area.
Due to the bushy appearance that they sometimes produce, they are sometimes referred to as
the brush border of an organ.

Connective Tissue:
Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue type found in the human

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body. The role of connective tissue is to protect, support, and bind together parts of the body.
While other functions are attributed to connective tissues, these are the main ones and the
ones we should focus on in our study. When considering the characteristics that make a tissue
a connective tissue, we should consider the following:

 Connective tissues tend to be very vascular (have a rich blood supply). Some exceptions, such
as tendons, ligaments, and cartilages, are less vascularized, but overall, connective tissues
possess a great blood supply than the epithelial tissue previously discussed.
 Connective tissues are made up of many types of specialized cells.
 Connective tissues contain a large amount of non-living material referred to as the matrix
(composed of ground substance and fibers). Typically, this material is manufactured and
secreted by the cells of the specific connective tissues.
There are four types of connective tissues found in the human body:

1. Connective tissue proper

a. Loose Connective Tissue
i. Areolar
ii. Adipose
iii. Reticular
b. Dense Connective Tissue
i. Dense regular
ii. Dense irregular
iii. Elastic
2. Cartilage
a. Hyaline
b. Elastic
c. Fibrocartilage
3. Bone (osseous tissue)
4. Blood

Observing Connective Tissues:

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Organ System

An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a certain function in an
organism’s body. Most animals and plants have organs, which are self-contained groups of
tissues such as the heart that work together to perform one function. Humans and other mammals
have many organ systems. An example of an organ system is the circulatory system, which
includes the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The human body has 11 different organ
systems.
1. The Integumentary System - consists of external organs that protect the body from damage,
including the skin, fingernails, and hair. Skin is the largest organ of the human body. It is made up
of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, which contains stored body fat. Nails and
hair are both made up of the protein keratin. In other animals, the integumentary system may
include feathers, scales, or hooves.

Besides protecting the internal organs from physical damage, the integumentary system has
multiple other functions such as protecting against virus invasion, dehydration, sunburns, and
changes in temperature, making Vitamin D through sun exposure, and excreting waste through
sweating.
2. The Skeletal System - is made up of all the bones in the human body, i.e., the skeleton. The
skeleton forms the supporting structure of the body. It comes from the Greek σκελετός (skeletós),
meaning “dried up”, referring to the dry nature of bones. A human infant has 270 bones, some of
which fuse together to form the 206 bones in the adult human body. Cartilage is the precursor to
bone when an embryo is developing, and it is found in some structures in the human body such as
the nose, ears, and joints.
An internal support structure in an animal is called an endoskeleton. Some animals such as
insects have hard coverings called exoskeletons on the outside instead of inside the body.
3. The Muscular System - includes the different types of muscles in the body: cardiac, smooth,
and skeletal muscles. Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart and contract to pump blood.
Smooth muscles are found in organs such as the stomach, intestines, and bladder and move
without conscious effort by the organism. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and work
together with bones to move the body.
4. The Circulatory System - also known as the cardiovascular system, consists of the heart,
veins, arteries, and capillaries. The circulatory system circulates blood throughout the body in
order to transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells. The lymphatic sys tem, which includes lymph
and lymph nodes, is also part of the circulatory system; lymph transports fats, destroys bacteria,
and returns proteins and interstitial fluid from the bloodstream.
Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems, where the blood is enclosed
within blood vessels like veins and arteries. Some animals, such as insects, have open circulatory
systems, where blood is pumped into body cavities without the use of vessels.
5. The Respiratory System - is made up of the organs used for breathing, including the lungs,
diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. In the lungs, oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged between the outside air and the blood. Other animals breathe through gills or even
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through their skin.

6. The Digestive System - digests food and absorbs it into the body. It is made up of the
gastrointestinal tract (which includes the esophagus, stomach, liver, and intestines) along with
accessory organs of digestion. These include the tongue, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
7. The Urinary System - gets rid of wastes from the body in the form of urine. The kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra are all part of the urinary system. Sometimes the organs of the
urinary system are grouped together with organs that remove wastes such as the skin, lungs, and
large intestine, and this is called the excretory system.
8. The Immune System - is an organism’s defense system; it protects against disease. Important
parts of the immune system include leukocytes (white blood cells), bone marrow, and the thymus.
There are many different types of white blood cells, like helper T cells, killer T cells, and B cells.
The lymphatic system is also associated with the immune system.
9. The Nervous System - sends and interprets signals from different parts of the body and
organizes the body’s actions. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, while
the peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that allow the central nervous system to
connect to the rest of the body.
10. The Endocrine System - is comprised of all the glands in the body that produce hormones,
which are carried via the bloodstream to affect other organs. Some important glands are the
pituitary gland, which produces reproductive and many other body-regulating hormones; the
thyroid, which has roles in metabolism and protein synthesis; and the adrenal glands, which
produce adrenaline and stimulate the fight-or-flight response.
11. The Reproductive System - includes an organism’s sex organs. In females, some of the sex
organs are the vagina, uterus, and ovaries. In males, some sex organs are the penis, testes,
prostrate, and vas deferens. All of these organs play a role in sexual reproduction.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the act of keeping the internal environment of a living organism within an
acceptable range of conditions.
• Homeostasis controls temperature, pH, blood volume, oxygen levels, blood sugar levels,
and other conditions.
• Negative feedback maintains homeostasis.

Feedback System

 Homeostatic mechanisms that maintain internal constancy are collectively known as

feedback systems
• There are three parts to feedback systems
– Control center (with set point)
– Sensor
– Effector

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Negative Feedback:
Negative feedback keeps conditions within an ideal range.
As conditions exceed the limits of the ideal range, chemical signals (hormones) regulate
conditions. Most often this is controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain.

Regulation of Body Temperature

Blood Glucose Regulation

Positive Feedback:
• Positive feedback takes a condition out of the normal range, often to some end
point.

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• During labor, oxytocin increases contractions, which stimulate more oxytocin

production, until birth occurs.
• Stretch receptors in walls of uterus
send signals to the brain
• Brain induces release of hormone
(oxytocin) into bloodstream
• Uterine smooth muscle contracts
more forcefully
• More stretch, more hormone, more
contraction etc.
• Cycle ends with birth of the baby &
decrease in stretch

Reference:

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Gener
al_Biology_(Boundless)/
https://biologydictionary.net/organ-system/

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