BPE 112 Module

UM Digos College
Department of Teacher Education

Roxas Extension, Digos City
Course Outline: BPE 112 – Anatomy and Physiology of Human Movement
Course Coordinator: Allan D. Arlos, LPT.

Email: arlosallan23@gmail.com
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 09195101332
Phone: None
Effective Date: August 2020 (1st term/1st Sem)
Mode of Delivery: Online Blended Delivery
Time Frame: 54 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum if 95% of attendance is required
at all scheduled Virtual or face to face
sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed for
Hours blended learning mode of instructional delivery with scheduled
face to face or virtual sessions. The expected number of hours
will be 54 including the face to face or virtual sessions. The face
to face sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure examination
for teachers.
Assessment Task Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3 rd, 5th, 7th and 9th
Submission week of the term. The assessment paper shall be attached with
a cover page indicating the title of the assessment task (if the
task is performance), the name of the course coordinator, date
of submission and name of the student. The document should
be emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected that
you already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the features

in the Blackboard Learning Management System, the schedule
shall be arranged ahead of time by the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure examination for

teachers, you will be required to take the Multiple- Choice
Question exam inside the University. This should be scheduled
ahead of time by your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable
for all licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks are
required to be submitted through Turnitin with a maximum
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(if necessary) similarity index of 30% allowed. This means that if your paper
goes beyond 30%, the students will either opt to redo her/his
paper or explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student may be
called for a disciplinary action in accordance with the
University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

commissioning other students or people to complete the task for
you have severe punishments (reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved extension
of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible maximum score
for that assessment item for each day or part day that the
assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has a valid

reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted and
approved by the course coordinator. If necessary, you will also
be required to present/attach evidences.
Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks after the
submission. This will be returned by email or via Blackboard
portal.
Return of Assignments/
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will require
Assessments
some or few of the students for online or virtual sessions to ask
clarificatory questions to validate the originality of the
assessment task submitted and to ensure that all the group
members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment task.
The resubmission is premised on the student’s failure to comply
with the similarity index and other reasonable grounds such as
academic literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g. illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of You should request in writing addressed to the program
Assessment Papers and coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score given to
Appeal an assessment task. The letter should explicitly explain the
reasons/points to contest the grade. The program coordinator
shall communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate your

case to the program head or the dean with the original letter of
request. The final decision will come from the dean of the
college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional contact
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Course discussions/exercises – 40%
Preliminary Exam – 10%

Mid-Term Exam – 10%
Semi-Final – 10%
Final Exam – 30%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual University

system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate, use the
Style general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account which is
a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal. Then, the course
coordinator shall enroll the students to have access to the
materials and resources of the course. All communication
formats: chat, submission of assessment tasks, requests etc.
shall be through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person through the
scheduled face to face sessions to raise your issues and
concerns.
For students who have not created their student email, please
contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Eduard L. Pulvera, MSIS
Dean Email: eduard_pulvera@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone/Mobile:
Contact Details of the Dann Ian G. Broa, LPT.
Program Head Email: dannian_broa@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone/Mobile:
Students with Special Students with special needs shall communicate with the course
Needs coordinator about the nature of his or her special needs.
Depending on the nature of the need, the course coordinator
with the approval of the program coordinator may provide
alternative assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the alternative
assessment tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.
Online Tutorial
Registration
Help Desk Contact ??????????????????????????????????????????
Library Contact ??????????????????????????????????????????
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Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the blackboard

LMS
CC’s Voice: Greetings future physical education teachers! Welcome to this course
BPE 112: Anatomy and Physiology of Human Movement. This is one of
the major subjects in BPEd program that will engage you in studying the
structure of human body in relation to physiological movements.
CO The course provides an understanding of the structure of the body and

how they operate as systems. Students use anatomical models and
digital media to provide a basis for understanding the structure and
function of the human body in terms of how it responds and adapts to
physical activities in all its forms.
Let us begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:
a. Explain thoroughly the essential terms under anatomy and

physiology of human movement;
b. Examine the levels of organizations of the human body as a whole
and;
c. Analyze and differentiate anatomical terminologies and positions.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Explain thoroughly the essential terms

under anatomy and physiology of human movement.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of anatomy and
physiology of human movement and to demonstrate ULOa will be operationally
defined to establish a common frame of refence as to how the texts work in your
chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go on. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding educational
concepts.
The following are some of the essential terms related to the study of anatomy
and physiology of human movement:
• Anatomy – is the branch of science that deals with the structure of the body
parts, their forms and how they are organized
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• Physiology- the science that deals with the functions of the body parts - what
they do and how they do it.
• Kinesiology – is that science that deals with the study of human motion
• Mechanics – is the area of scientific study concerned with the mechanical
aspect of any system. This provides accurate answers to what is happening,
why it is happening, and to what extent it is happening.
o Static - the study of factors associated with non-moving systems
o Dynamics – the study of factors associated with system in motion
▪ Biomechanics- is the area of study wherein the knowledge and
methods of mechanics are applied to the structure and function
of the living human system
▪ Kinematics – the study of the time and space factors of motion
of a system
▪ Kinetics – the study of the forces acting on body that influence
its movement
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are
not limited to exclusively refer to the these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize
other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the university’s
library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.
Introduction
The study of human body has a long history. Our ancestors, who relied on
superstitions and notions about magic to help the sick, became so curious about how
their bodies worked. Through continuous practice and observation, they began to
discover useful ways of treating the human body..
The medical provider and healer coined many new terms to name the body parts,
describe their location and to explain their functions. These terms, most of which
originated from Greeks and Latin words formed the basis for the language of anatomy
and physiology which we relate as scientific names.
Scientist has always been interested in the structure and movement of the human
body. The ancient Egyptians are believed to have been the first people to study
anatomy. In the middle of the 4th century B.C. Hippocrates, known as the “Father of
Medicine”, continue these studies in Greece. Aristotle, known to be the “Father of
Kinesiology” was the first scientist to describe and analyze the actions of muscle.
Galen was the first to introduce the concept of muscle contractions and named such
muscles as the agonist and antagonist muscles.
Today, even with the modern technology, scientist continues to conduct research to
learn more of the human body and how it works. The science of Anatomy provided us
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with the knowledge about the structure and function of the human body, while
Kinesiology with information about human motion in relation with other sciences such
as physiology, physics and neurology.
1. Anatomy. Is often defined as the study of the structure of an organisms and

the relationships of its parts. The word “anatomy” is derived from the Greek
word parts that mean “to cut apart.” Students of anatomy still learn about the
structure of the human body by literally cutting it apart. This process called
dissection, remains a principal technique used to isolate and study the
structural components or parts of the human body.
Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body
and observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians were
allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment their knowledge. When a body
is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their physical
attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in
medical schools, anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe
structures in living people, however, a number of imaging techniques have been
developed. These techniques allow clinicians to visualize structures inside the
living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone.
Like most scientific disciplines, anatomy has areas of

specialization. Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body,
those visible without the aid of magnification (Figure 1-1a). Macro- means
“large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as Macroscopic anatomy. In
contrast, micro- means “small,” and Microscopic anatomy is the study of
structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other
magnification devices (Figure 1-1b). Microscopic anatomy includes cytology,
the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues. As the technology of
microscopes has advanced, anatomists have been able to observe smaller and
smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the heart, to
the three-dimensional structures of large molecules in the body.
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Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s

structures: regional and systemic. Regional anatomy is the study of the
interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the
abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships
of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other
structures work together to serve a particular body region. In
contrast, Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a
discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to
perform a unique body function. For example, a systemic anatomical study of
the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body.
2. Physiology. Is the science that deals with the functions of the living organisms
and its parts. The term physiology is a combination of two Greek words (physis,
“nature” and logos, “study”). Simply stated, it is the study of physiology that
helps us understand how the body works. Physiologists attempt to discover and
understand intricate control systems that permit the body to operate and survive
in changing and often hostile environments.
Biology is defined as the scientific study of life. Both anatomy and

physiology are subdivisions of this very broad area of inquiry. Each of these
subdivisions can be further divided into smaller areas of study (systemic
anatomy, microscopic anatomy, gross anatomy, neurophysiology,
cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and etc,.)
Whereas anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function.

Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the
structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the
functions of life. Much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency
toward homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions
maintained by living things. The study of physiology certainly includes
observation, both with the naked eye and with microscopes, as well as
manipulations and measurements. However, current advances in physiology
usually depend on carefully designed laboratory experiments that reveal the
functions of the many structures and chemical compounds that make up the
human body.
Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch

of physiology. For example, neurophysiology is the study of the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions as complex
and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking. Physiologists may work from
the organ level (exploring, for example, what different parts of the brain do) to
the molecular level (such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travels
along nerves).
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3. Kinesiology. The term Kinesiology coined in 1854 by Carl Georgii , the

Swedish medical gymnast and kinesiologist, is a literal translation of Greek +
English meaning ‘Movement Science’ which was the foundation of medical
gymnastics. The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (GCI) was founded in
Stockholm in 1813 by Pehr Henrik Ling. It was the first physiotherapy school in
the world, training hundreds of medical gymnasts who spread the Swedish
physical therapy to all continents. In 1887 Sweden was the first country in the
world to give a national state licence to physiotherapists/physical therapists.
Kinesiology was further developed by an American chiropractor, George

Goodheart who found that by testing muscle response before and after he
made chiropractic corrections he achieved better results for his patients.
Eventually he was able to make a connection between various muscles and
acupuncture meridians. The International College of Applied Kinesiology
(ICAK) was founded in 1975 to provide instruction on Goodheart's research to
other health care professionals. The term now covers not just the original form,
but various other healing modalities. The muscle testing aspect of kinesiology
is relatively transferable. It is common for it to be applied, expanded upon and
incorporated into other therapy forms.
It studies the mechanics of human movement and how they impact our
health and wellbeing. During classes, students learn how to combine a holistic
approach with Anatomy, Biomechanics, and Psychology principles to help
increase or repair the physical mobility of patients. Kinesiology degrees have
been growing in popularity because they can be applied in numerous areas,
such as Health (body & mind), Fitness, Sport, and Recreation.
Here are the 9 main objectives of Kinesiology:
3.1 Relaxation
3.2 Correlating the alignment and posture of the body
3.3 Increasing joints mobility
3.4 Increasing muscular endurance
3.5 Coordination, control, balance
3.6 Exercise training
3.7 Respiratory re-education
3.8 Sensory re-education
4. Body Mechanics. It involves the coordinated functions of muscles, bones, and

the nervous system to preserve balance, posture, and alignment during
moving, transferring, and positioning patients. Proper body mechanics permit
individuals to carry out activities without too much use of energy, and helps
avoid injuries for patients and health care providers.
A series of excessive use of energy or body may lead to various muscle

or skeletal injuries or a combination of both. Thus, it is important for the
individual to know the effect of excessive use of energy or body for them to
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prevent or treat such injuries. This knowledge may help the health care
providers for fast recovery of the people experiencing these injuries.
Below are the most common health hazards:
Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSI). Is an injury or disorder of the muscles,

tendons, ligaments, joints or nerves, blood vessels, or related soft tissue
including a sprain, strain, or inflammation related to a work injury. MSIs are the
most common health hazard for health care providers.
List of risks factors that contribute to MSI
Factor Special Information

Ergonomic risk factors Repetitive or sustained awkward postures, repetition, or
forceful exertion
Individual risk factors Poor work practice; poor overall health (smoking, drinking
alcohol, and obesity); poor rest and recovery; poor fitness,
hydration, and nutrition
When health care providers are exposed to ergonomic risk factors, they
become fatigued and risk musculoskeletal imbalance. Further exposure related
to individual risk factors puts health care providers at increased risk for an MSI.
Preventing an MSI is achieved by understanding the elements of body

mechanics, applying the principles of body mechanics to all work-related
activities, understanding how to assess a patient’s ability to position or transfer,
and learning safe handling transfers and positioning techniques.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
Patton, K. and Thibodeau, G. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology – 21st Edition. Elsevier Inc.
The Physiological Society (2019). What is Physiology? Retrieved from

https://www.physoc.org/explore-physiology/what-is-physiology/
Rice University (N.D.) Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/1-2-structural-organization-of-
the-human-body-2/
Rice University (N.D.) Body Mechanics. Retrieved from

https://opentextbc.ca/clinicalskills/chapter/3-2-body-mechanics/
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Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms under Anatomy and
Physiology of Human Movement, let us try to check your understanding of these terms.
Read carefully the review questions below and encircle the letter of your best answer:
1. Which of the following specialties might focus on studying all of the structures
of the ankle and foot?
A. microscopic anatomy C. regional anatomy

B. muscle anatomy D. systemic anatomy
2. A scientist wants to study how the body uses foods and fluids during a marathon
run. This scientist is most likely a(n) ________.
A. exercise physiologist C. regional physiologist

B. microscopic anatomist D. systemic anatomist
3. The following are examples of MSI, Except:

A. muscle sprain C. awkward Posture
B. muscle strain D. anxiety
4. It is the area of scientific study concerned with the mechanical aspect of any
system.
A. kinesiology C. body Mechanics
B. physiology D. anatomy
5. It is the branch of science that deals with the structure of the body parts, their
forms and how they are organized.
B. anatomy D. physiology
6. What is the science that deals with the study of human motion?
B. anatomy D. physiology
7. Who was the first scientist to describe and analyze the actions of muscle?
A. galen C. herodotus
B. aristotle D. plato
8. The medical provider and healer coined many new terms to name the body
parts, describe their location and to explain their functions. These terms, most
of which originated from _______?
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A. egyptian C. persian
B. greeks D. modern scientists
9. Known as the father of Kinesiology.

10. Who was the first to introduce the concept of muscle contractions and named
such muscles as the agonist and antagonist muscles?
11. The following are the individual risk factors that contribute to MSI, Except:
A. Smoking C. muscle strain
B. drinking liquors D. poor fitness
12. The following are the ergonomic risk factors that contribute to MSI, Except:
A. awkward posture C. poor rest and recovery
B. repetition of forceful exertion D. over progressive exercises
Let’s Analyze
Activity 2. Getting acquainted with the essential terms under Anatomy and
Physiology of Human Movement is not enough, what also matters is you should also
be able to explain its importance. Now, I will require you to elaborate your response to
the guide questions below:
1. Name at least three reasons to study anatomy and physiology.
a. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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2. For whom would an appreciation of the structural characteristics of the human

heart come more easily: an alien who lands on Earth, abducts a human, and
dissects his heart, or an anatomy and physiology student performing a
dissection of the heart on her very first day of class? Why?
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. How do body alignment and body structure balance contribute to proper body
mechanics?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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In a Nutshell
Activity 3. Anatomy and physiology of human movement in physical education

are some of the essential concepts and theory-based practices of becoming a physical
education teacher. It requires a mastery of the content for you to demonstrate its
scope, thus understanding the nature of it will help you in your profession.
Based from the definition of the most essential terms in anatomy and physiology
of human movement and the learning exercises that you have done, you can now
demonstrate your concluding knowledge using the table below. Compare the pair of
concepts with your own understanding (own words) about the entire lesson.
ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY
KINESIOLOGY BODY MECHANICS
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Q&A LIST. This section allows you to list down all emerging questions or issues
pertaining to the entire lessons of this course.
Do you have any question for clarification?
Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Examine the levels of organizations of the

human body as a whole.
Metalanguage
On the figure below are the Levels of Structural Organization of the Human
Body. The organization of the body often is discussed in terms of six distinct levels of
increasing complexity, from the smallest chemical building blocks to a unique human
organism.
Figure 1 – 2. The order of levels of organizations of the human body.
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Essential Knowledge
Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the human
body, it is helpful to consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are
assembled into larger structures. It is convenient to consider the structures of the body
in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic
particles, atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems,
organisms and biosphere.
In the levels of organization, the smallest parts of the body are atoms that make
up chemicals, or molecules of the body. Molecules make up microscopic parts called
organelles that fit together to form each cell of the body. Groups of similar cells are
called tissues, which combine with other tissues to form individual organs. Group of
organs that work together are called systems. All the systems of the body together
make up an individual organism.
Knowledge of the different levels of organization will help you understand the
basic concepts of human anatomy and physiology.
Figure 1 – 3. The Hierarchy levels of organizations of the human body.
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The following are the levels of organization of the body as a whole:
1. Chemical Level. There are more than 100 different chemical building blocks of
nature called Atoms, a tiny spheres of matter so small they are invisible. Every
material thing in our universe, including human body, is composed of atoms.
Combinations of atoms from larger chemical groupings, called Molecules.

Molecules, in turn, often combined with other atoms and molecules to form larger
and more complex chemicals, called Macromolecules. The unique and complex
relationships that exist among atoms, molecules and macromolecules in living
material form a gel-like material made of fluids, particles and membranes called
Cytoplasm, an essential material of human life.
2. Organelle Level. Chemical structures may be organized within larger units called
cells to form various structures called organelles, which is the next level of
organization. An organelle may be defined as a structure made of molecules
organized in such a way that it can perform a specific function. Organelles are the
“tiny organs” that allow each cell to live. Organelles cannot survive outside the cell,
but without organelles, the cell itself could not survive either.
Dozens of different kinds of organelles have been identified. There’s a few

examples below:
• Mitochondria – the “powerhouse” of cells that provide energy needed

by the cell to carry on day-to-day functioning, growth, and repair.
• Golgi apparatus – set of sacks that provides a “packaging” service to
the cell by storing material for the future internal use or for export from
the cell.
• Endoplasm reticulum (ER) – network of channels within the cell that
act as “highways” for the movement of chemicals and as sites for
chemical processing.
3. Cellular Level. the cellular level is made up of the smallest unit of living matter,
the cell. Cell are the building blocks of the body. They are the smallest structure of
the body that carries out complex processes. It varies in size, shape, color and
other depending upon its function. It can divide and multiply, Typically a human cell
consists of several compartments of organelles surrounded by plasma membrane.
The organelles can be seen floating in fluid called cytoplasm. Each cell contains
a nucleus where the genetic material is stored. This coil-like structure is called
chromosomes that always comes in pair and are made up of a chemical called
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) where the genetic materials are stored. Each one of
us has 46 chromosomes, from which 23 came from the father and 23 from the
mother. This made us unique from others.
4. Tissue Level. tissues are group of cells organized into layers or masses that have
common function. Cells of different tissues vary in size, shape, organization and
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function, those within each type are quite similar in function. The tissues of the
human body are of four major types
• Epithelial/Epithelium – cover all body surfaces, line most internal
organs, and are the major tissues of glands. The epithelial cells
reproduce readily that is why injuries to epithelium heals rapidly as new
cells replace lost or damages ones. Examples are the skin, stomach
and intestine
• Connective – binds structures, provide supports and protection, serves
as frameworks, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, protect against
infections and help repair tissue damage. Examples are the bones, the
tendons , ligaments, muscles, adipose tissue or fats, nervous tissues
5. Organ Level. An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed

of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs one or more specific
physiological functions. Further, organ level are groups of different tissues that
form a complex structure with specialized functions like the skin, skeleton,
stomach, the heart, kidneys, intestine, muscles, brain, blood etc.
6. System Level. the system level of organization involves varying numbers and
kinds of organs arranged so that, together, they can perform complex functions for
the body. Thus, systems are group of organs that function closely together that
constitute the organism.
The following are the brief discussion of the eleven major system compose of the
human body:
1. Skeletal system - consist of the bones, cartilage and ligaments that

binds bones together. Without the frame to support your body you would
collapse, lose your shapes and be unable to move. This body frame is
called skeleton. It gives your body strength and protects the soft parts
inside. The bones are light enough to allow you to move about easily.
They have joints that you can bend to allow the body to do many things.
It also produces blood cells and store inorganic salt.
2. Muscular system – consist of the different muscles all over the body.
By the contraction and pulling of the skeletal muscles, the muscles
provide forces that cause the body to move. They also maintain posture
and are the main source of body heat. Your heart beating, your intestine
and lungs working are made of muscles
3. Nervous system – consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense
organs. Nerve cells within this organs use electrochemical signals called
nerve impulses that carries information between the brain and all parts
of the body. The sensory nerve carries signals to your brain from your
senses telling what is happening around you. When the brain decided
what to do it sends signals along the other set of nerves – the motor
nerves that makes your muscles work.
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4. Circulatory system- consist the heart, the blood vessels and the blood.
The blood is pumped all around your body by the heart. It passes and
transport blood through the blood vessels. Arteries used to transport
blood away from the heart while the veins transport blood towards the
heart, while exchange of gases takes place in the tiny capillaries.
5. Respiratory System – consist of the air passages from the nose to the
trachea or windpipes, bronchi, to the alveoli or the air sacs of your lungs.
The air that you breathe is made up of different gasses, mixed together,
but the body only needs one of them, oxygen to keep you alive.
6. Digestive system – consist of the mouth that breaks down the food into
tiny bits. Then it travels down the esophagus which is connected to the
stomach where the digestive process is strongest. Then the food flows
down the small intestine. Food nutrients seep through the thin walls into
the blood. The large intestine holds the food that the body cannot digest.
Later it passes out the body through the rectum.
7. Excretory System – the organs in several systems absorb and excrete
various wastes. The digestive system excrete undigested food through
the rectum, the kidney removes waste from the blood in the form of urine.
The respiratory system gives out carbon dioxide as waste product while
the skin gives out perspiration that even carries salt and fats.
8. Integumentary system – includes the skin and its various accessory
organs such as the nails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
This system protects the underlying tissues, help regulate body
temperature, house variety of sensory receptors and synthesize certain
products.
9. Reproductive system – Reproduction is the process of producing
offspring. Cell reproduces when they divide and give rise to new cells.
The reproduction of an organism produces a whole new organism like
itself. This consists of the female organs vagina, uterus, ovary, egg and
egg tube. The male organs include the penis, testes and bladder.
10. Lymphatic system - consist of the lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph
nodes, thymus gland and spleen. This system transports some of the
tissue fluid back to the blood stream and carries certain fatty substance
away from the digestive organs. The cells of the lymphatic system are
called lymphocytes. They defend the body against infection by removing
the disease causing microorganisms and viruses from the tissue.
11. Endocrine system – includes all the glands that secrete chemical
messengers called hormones that help control conditions within the
body. They are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas,
ovaries, pineal glands and thymus
The above discussed systems are just brief concepts, we will encounter
the in depth concept of it in unit 3 (week 7-9) of this course.
7. Organism Level. the organismal level is the highest level of organization. It is the
sum total of all structural levels working together. In short, it is the human being (or
organism) as a whole. It is a marvelously coordinated team of interactive structures
that is able to survive and flourish in an often hostile environment. Not only can
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the human body produce itself and maintain ongoing repair and replacement of
worn damaged parts, it can also maintain – in a constant and predictable way –
an incredible number of variables required for a human lead a healthy, and
productive life.
We are able to maintain a normal body temperature and fluid balance under
widely varying environmental extremes. We maintain constant blood levels of
many important chemicals and nutrients. We experience effective protection
against disease, elimination of waste products, and coordinated movement. We
correctly and interpret sound, visual images and other external stimuli with great
regularity. These are few examples of how the different levels of organization in
the human organism permit expression of the characteristics associated with life.
In the field of Physical Education, the study of anatomy is centered on the systems
that are directly involved in movements. The rest of the systems are taken in passing
although it plays a very important role in the development of the body and in
maintaining fitness and wellness. The said focus is given more on the musculoskeletal,
cardio respiratory and nervous systems.

Rice University (N.D.) 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body – Anatomy and
Physiology. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/1-2-
structural-organization-of-the-human-body-2/
The Anatomy and Physiology Inc. (2013). Anatomy & Physiology. Retrieved from
https://anatomyandphysiologyi.com/ap-levels-of-structural-organization/
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Let’s Check
Activity 4. At this juncture, you are now going to assess your own
understanding based on the lesson you encountered which is the levels of
organization of the human body. In this activity, you are going to match the statements
under column A to the options under column B, provide your answer on the line/space
before the number.
Column A Column B
___1. It certainly more than the sum of its part. a. Tissue level
___2. This system protects the underlying tissues, and b. Endoplasm Reticulum
help regulate body temperature.
c. Organism level
___3. These are group of cells organized into layers or
masses that have common function. d. Cytoplasm
___4. Act as “highways” for the movement of chemicals e. Integumentary System

and as sites for chemical processing.
f. System Level
___5. An essential material of human life.
g. Atom
___6. These level are group of organs that function closely
together that constitute the organism. h. Molecules
___7. A tiny spheres of matter so small they are invisible. i. Epithelial/Epithelium
___8. Combinations of atoms from larger chemical groupings j. Golgi Apparatus
___9. It covers all body surfaces, line most internal organs, k. Nerve impulses
and are the major tissues of glands.
l. Organelles
___10. Set of sacks that provides a “packaging” service to
the cell by storing material for the future internal use or for m. Nervous System
export from the cell.
n. Mitochondria
___11. Responsible for carrying information between the brain
and all parts of the body. o. Cell
___12. These are the “tiny organs” that allow each cell to live. p. Circulatory System
___13. They are the smallest structure of the body that carries q. Macromolecules
out complex processes.
___14. Produced when combined with other atoms and

molecules to form larger and more complex chemicals.
___15. the “powerhouse” of cells that provide energy needed

by the cell to carry on day-to-day functioning, growth, and repair.
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 5. Modified true or false: Each statement has different arguments

pertaining to the levels of organizations of the human body. In this activity, read and
analyze the statements. If the statements are true, write your insights to support it, if
false, write your arguments.
1. Cell is independent with organelles.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Organelle level is next to Organ Level.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Organism level is more than the sum of its parts.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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4. The correct order of the organizations (organell level – chemical level –

tissue level – cellular level – organ level – system level – organism level).
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. The least important of the organization is tissue level.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
In a Nutshell
Activity 6. At this juncture, you are going to demonstrate your deep knowledge
about the levels of organizations of the human body by providing insights of the
following statements:
1. Cancers are defined by controlled growth at the cellular level. Described why
cancer is a problem for the organism as a whole using your understanding f the
levels of organization.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. In the hierarchy, at which level of structural organization would a cytologist’s

field of study be considered? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. In the field of physical education, how does the levels of organizations of the
human body relevant?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Analyze and differentiate anatomical

terminologies and positions.
Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULOc, you will need to be acquainted with the
anatomical terminologies and positions. I suggest you review the previous lessons you
encountered related to the essential terms for you to prepare in this next lesson.
Please refer to the figures below used in anatomical terminologies and

positions:
Figure 1 – 4. Labelled Terms and Positions under Relative/Directional and Body

Planes/Sections
Relative Positions
The terms relative position described the location of one body part with respect to
another.
Body Section/ Planes
Observing the various locations and organization of the internal body parts requires
cutting or sectioning the body along various planes.
Sometimes a cylindrical organ such as the blood vessel is sectioned. In this case, a
cut across the structure is called a cross section, an angular cut is an oblique
section, and a lengthwise cut is a longitudinal section.
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Essential Knowledge
Discussions about the body, how it moves, its posture, or the relationship of
one area to another assume that the body as a whole is in a specific position called
the anatomical position. Anatomists and health care providers use terminology that
can be bewildering to the uninitiated. However, the purpose of this language is not to
confuse, but rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors.
For example, is a scar “above the wrist” located on the forearm two or three
inches away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the hand? Is it on the palm-side or
back-side? By using precise anatomical terminology, we eliminate ambiguity.
Anatomical terms derive from ancient Greek and Latin words. Because these
languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the meaning of their words
does not change.
1. Anatomical Position. To further increase precision, anatomists standardize

the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with
north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of
the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes
forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands
face forward as illustrated in Figure 1 – 5.
Using this standard position reduces confusion. It does not matter how
the body being described is oriented, the terms are used as if it is in anatomical
position. For example, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region” would
be present on the palm side of the wrist. The term “anterior” would be used
even if the hand were palm down on a table.
Figure 1 – 5. Regions of the Human Body. The human body is shown in anatomical
position in an (a) anterior view and a (b) posterior view.
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A body that is lying down is described as either prone or

supine. Prone describes a face-down orientation, and Supine describes a face
up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing the position of
the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures.
2. Anatomical Directional Terms. To minimize confusion when discussing the

relationship between body areas or the location of a particular anatomical
structure, specific terms must be used. When is in the anatomical position, the
following directional terms will be used to describe the location of one body part
with respect to another (refer to Figure 1 – 4).
Below are the directional terms to describe the location of the body part
with respect to another.
• Superior – means that a body part is above another part or is closer to

the head (The thoracic cavity is superior to the abdominopelvic cavity).
• Inferior – means that the body part is below another body part or is
toward the feet. (The neck is inferior to the head)
• Anterior (or Ventral) –means towards the front ( The eyes are anterior
to the brain)
• Posterior (or Dorsal) – means towards the back ( The pharynx is
posterior to the oral cavity)
• Medial – relates to the imaginary midline dividing the body into equal left
and right halves. A body part is medial if it is closer to the line than
another part. T The nose is medial to the eyes)
• Lateral – means toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline.
(The ears are lateral to the eyes)
• Proximal – describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment
or closer to the trunk to the trunk of the body than other part. (The elbow
is proximal to the wrist)
• Distal – means that a particular part of the body id farther from the point
of attachment or father from the trunk than another part. ( The fingers
are distal to the wrist)
• Superficial – means situated near the surface (the epidermis is
superficial to the layer of the skin). Peripheral also means outward or
near the surface.
• Deep – described part that is more internal. The dermis is the inner layer
of the skin).
3. Body Planes and Sections. A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-

dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical imaging devices
enable clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call these
scans. Body sections and scans can be correctly interpreted, however, only if
the viewer understands the plane along which the section was made.
A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the
body. There are three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine,
as illustrated in Figure 1 – 4.
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The three planes most commonly used in anatomical and medical

imaging are the sagittal, frontal (or coronal), and transverse plane.
• Sagittal – refers to the lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and
left portion. If the sagittal section passes along the midline and divides
the body into equal parts it is called median (midsagittal)
• Transverse (Horizontal) – refers to the cut that divides the body into
superior and inferior potion.
• Coronal (frontal or lateral) – refers to a section that divides the body
into anterior and posterior portion
4. Body Regions (Regional Terms). The human body’s numerous regions have
specific terms to help increase precision (see Figure 1 – 5). Notice that the term
“brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or
“forearm” is used rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct,
and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee
and the ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s regions using the terms
from the figure.
In addition, below illustrates the identifications of the body regions, its

locations and are of example:
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5. Body Cavities. The body maintains its internal organization by means of

membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments.
The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest
body compartments (Figure 1 – 6). These cavities contain and protect delicate
internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size
and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart,
stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
Figure 1 – 6. Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities. The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and
spinal cavities.
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a. Dorsal Cavities. The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities

are each subdivided into smaller cavities. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity,
the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral
cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make
up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities
that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are
protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by
cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which
cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.
b. Ventral Cavities. The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main
subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
(see Figure 1 – 6.). The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision
of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage.
• Thoracic Cavity. contains the lungs and the heart, which is

located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the
thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior
abdominopelvic cavity.
• Abdominopelvic Cavity. is the largest cavity in the body.
Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic
cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal
cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the
pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.
To make it easier to in the large abdominopelvic cavity,
anatomists have divided the abdominopelvic cavity into
four quadrants:
Right upper quadrant or RUQ (right superior quadrant)

Right lower quadrant or RLQ (right inferior quadrant)
Left upper quadrant or LUQ (left superior quadrant)
Left lower quadrant or LLQ (left inferior quadrant)
Figure 1 – 7. Abdominopelvic Regions.
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To promote clear communication, for instance about the location

of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers
typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants
(Figure 1 – 7).

Rice University (N.D.) 7 1.6 Anatomical Terminology. Retrieved from

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/1-6-anatomical-terminology/
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Let’s Check
Activity 7. In this activity, you are required to make an anatomical description

on each of the following terminologies and positions. Strictly do not use the examples
given in the lesson discussions of the anatomical terms and positions.
I am going to make the first description then you will continue for the succeeding
terms and positions.
Terms/Positions Anatomical Description

1. Anterior The mouth is anterior to tongue.
2. Superior
3. Inferior
4. Posterior
5. Superficial
6. Medial
7. Deep
8. Lateral
9. Proximal
10. Distal
11. Transverse
12. Coronal
13. Sagittal
14. Midsagittal
15. Ventral
16. Dorsal
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 8. This activity is a case study analysis, you are required to use your
learnings about the anatomical terminologies and positions. Read carefully and
analyze the scenario provided below, interpret or elaborate your answer based on the
anatomical terms, positions, body regions and body cavities. I will provide the first
answer and you will continue answering the remaining questions.
Seamus is just starting his first year in college, and his been thinking going into
the medical field – maybe nursing. To find out what nursing is really like, Seamus signs
up a “shadow nurse” day at the hospital. He’s scheduled to follow a nurse in the
emergency department to see what the job involves.
Everything is rather quiet and boring for the first hour; then suddenly an
ambulance pulls into the bay and a paramedic rushes a patient in on a stretcher. The
paramedic gives a quick patient report, and Seamus hears, “Stab wound to the right
upper quadrant. He has additional cuts to his brachial region and a large contusion on
his right lower extremity just proximal to the knee.”
Seamus feels like his listening to a foreign language! Can you help him interpret
the paramedic report?
Guiding Questions:
1. Where was the patient stabbed?
“The patient was stabbed in his abdominal cavity, specifically at the right
superior quadrant.”
2. What organ is most likely to have been damaged by the attack?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Where is the bruise (contusion) on the patient’s body?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Where is the patient’s brachial region?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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In a Nutshell
Activity 9. At this juncture, you will demonstrate your deep knowledge about
the anatomical terms and positions in the body as well as the body regions and body
cavities. Read carefully the critical thinking questions provided below and elaborate
your answer in each of the questions.
1. What is meant by anatomical position?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. How do the specific anatomical terms of position or direction relate to this body
orientation?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. How does the location of body regions and body cavities important to a physical
education teacher?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Big Picture
to:
a. Explain thoroughly the terms and characteristics of the skeletal

system and muscular system in human movement;
b. Examine and identify the specific structure of the skeletal system
and muscular system and;
c. Analyze the Skeletal Muscles, and their Lever Systems of Muscle and
Bone Interactions.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Explain thoroughly the terms and

characteristics of the skeletal system and muscular system in
human movement.
Metalanguage
In this part, the two major systems in the field of physical education will be
discuss briefly with the essential terms. To demonstrate ULOa, the terms under
skeletal and muscular systems will be further discuss at essential knowledge. I highly
encourage you to refer back to previous unit for all the terms for you to relate in this
unit.
Below are some of the terms in skeletal ang muscular systems:
1. BONE – hard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the
skeleton.
2. CARTILAGE – semi-rigid connective tissue found on the skeleton in areas
where flexibility and smooth surfaces support movement.
3. HEMATOPOIESIS – production of blood cells, which occurs in the red marrow
of the bones.
4. ORTHOPEDIST – doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating
musculoskeletal disorders and injuries.
5. OSSEOUS TISSUE – bone tissue; a hard, dense connective tissue that forms
the structural elements of the skeleton.
6. RED MARROW – connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where
hematopoiesis takes place.
7. SKELETAL SYSTEM – organ system composed of bones and cartilage that
provides for movement, support, and protection.
8. YELLOW MARROW – connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where
fat is stored.
9. FLEXION – is the act of bringing two bones closer together which decrease the
angle between two bones.
10. EXTENSION – is the act of increasing the angle between two bones that results
in straightening motion.
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11. ABDUCTION – is the movement of an extremity away from the midline (an
imaginary line that divides the body from head to toe.
12. ADDUCTION – is movement towards the midline.
13. CIRCUMDUCTION – a continuous motion from flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction and hyperextension.
14. ROTATION – allows a bone to move around one central axis. A pivot motion
when you turn the head from side to side.
15. PRONATION – the forearm turns the hand so the palm is facing downward
16. SUPINATION – turns the hand to face upward.
Essential Knowledge
For this part, the importance and functions of the skeletal and muscular systems
will be discuss. Further, the interrelation of the two major systems in physical
education program will be realize. Below are the concept keys for the said body
systems:
I. THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeleton is made out of 206 bones of different size and shapes. It serves as the
framework that holds the whole body together.
THE BONES
The bones are the living structures consisting of several layers. These include thin,
membranous outer surface that has a network of nerves and blood vessels running
through it. Bones is made up of 35% organic materials of fibrous protein called
collagen that gives the bone flexibility. The 65% of inorganic salt and water like calcium
and phosphorus that gives the bone strength.
FUNCTIONS
• The 206 bones of the human body form a rigid framework (skeleton) to which
the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached.
• The vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by
the surrounding skulls, as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and
rib cage.
• Body movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal
systems. For this reason, they are often grouped together as the
musculoskeletal system. Muscles are connected to the bones by tendons
while bone are connected to another bone by ligaments. This bone connection
is typically called joints.
• Blood cells are produced by the marrow in some bones. An average of 2.6
million red blood cells is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace
those worn out and destroyed by the liver.
• Bones served as storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
When an excess is present in the blood, a build-up will occur within the bones.
When the supply of these minerals is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones
to replenish the supply.
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TYPES OF BONES
The types of bones are classified on the basis of their form:
• Long bones - leg and arm bones
• Short bones – wrist and ankle bones
• Flat bones – skull, shoulder blade, ribs, sternum and patella
• Irregular bones - spinal column
THE JOINTS
The joints or articulation is the place where two bones come together. There are three
types of joints classified according to their degrees of movement.
• IMMOVABLE or Synarthroses – in this joint the bones are in a very close
contact and are separated only by thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. The
sutures are the joints of the skull. The parietal bones are joined by the sagittal
suture. Where the parietal bones and frontal bones meet is the coronal suture,
the parietal and the occipital is joined by lomboidal suture while the suture
between the parietal and temporal is referred to squamous suture. This site is
the most common location of the fontanelles on the head of the baby
• SLIGHTLY MOVABLE or Amphiarthroses – this joint is characterized by
bones that are connected by hyaline cartilage (fibro cartilage). Example: The
ribs that are connected to the sternum.
• FREELY MOVABLE or Diarthroses – most of the joint in the human body are
freely movable which are of six types:
1. Ball-and-Socket – this type has a ball shaped end on one bone that fits into
a cup shaped socket of the other bone allowing the widest range of motion
including rotation. Example: shoulder and hip joints
2. Condyloid – oval shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity of another
allowing angular motion but not rotation. This occur between the
metacarpals (bones in the palm of the hands) and the phalanges (fingers)
and between the metatarsals(foot bones excluding heel) phalanges (toes)
3. Saddle – this type of joint occurs when the touching surface of two bones
have both concave and convex regions with the shapes of the bones
complementing one another and allowing a wide range of movement.
Example: only the thumb.
4. Pivot – the rounded or conical surface of one bone fits into a ring of one or
tendon allowing rotation. Example: the joint between the axis and atlas of
the neck.
5. Hinge – a concave projection of one bone fits the concave depression in
another that allows only two movements, flexion and extension. Example:
knee joint and elbow joints
6. Gliding – Flat or slightly flat bones move against each other allowing sliding
or twisting without any circular movement. Example: carpals or wrist bone
and tarsals of the ankle
The thigh bones or the femur is the largest and strongest single bone in the body,
while the smallest bone is called stirrup found in the middle ear connected to two other
small bones called hammer and anvil that are joined to the eardrum. This carries
sound signals to the brain.
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The skeletal system forms the rigid internal framework of the body. It consists of
the bones, cartilages, and ligaments. Bones support the weight of the body, allow for
body movements, and protect internal organs. Cartilage provides flexible strength and
support for body structures such as the thoracic cage, the external ear, and the trachea
and larynx. At joints of the body, cartilage can also unite adjacent bones or provide
cushioning between them.
Ligaments are the strong connective tissue bands that hold the bones at a
moveable joint together and serve to prevent excessive movements of the joint that
would result in injury. Providing movement of the skeleton are the muscles of the body,
which are firmly attached to the skeleton via connective tissue structures called
tendons. As muscles contract, they pull on the bones to produce movements of the
body. Thus, without a skeleton, you would not be able to stand, run, or even feed
yourself!
II. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The Muscles
You have about 650 muscles in your body. While bones give the body structure and
support, they cannot move by themselves. Muscles are need for all body movements
like walking, running , talking, breathing and others. The three functions of muscles
are movement, maintenance of posture, production of body heat and muscles help
give our body its shape.
3 TYPES OF MUSCLES
There are three types of muscle
• SKELETAL MUSCLES – are connected to the bones. A skeletal muscle fiber
is long, cylindrical, multinucleated and contains an alternation light and dark
striations. They are also called voluntary muscles because the movements they
produce are under your control that maybe rapid or forceful. Contraction
stabilizes the joint.
• SMOOTH MUSCLES – are long and spindle-shaped with no striation. It is
located in the walls of tubular structures and hollow organs such as the
digestive tract, the blood vessels and other internal organs except the heart.
• CARDIAC MUSCLES – are involuntary muscles found only in the heart that
works nonstop for life. Its contraction occurs involuntarily and is rhythmic and
automatic. When the body is at rest the heart generally beats about 60 to 70
times in a minute.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES
The muscles whether they are skeletal, smooth or cardiac have four characteristics in
common:
• CONTRACTIBILITY – When the muscle shortens or contracts, it reduces the
distance between the parts of its content or the space that it surrounds. The
contraction of skeletal muscles which connects a pair of bones brings the
attachment point closer together which causes the bone to move. When cardiac
muscles and other smooth muscles contract they squeeze out the blood
causing the surrounding blood vessels to relax and increase in diameter to
allow the passage of blood in these tubes and to decrease upon contraction
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• EXCITABILITY (Irritability) – is the ability of the muscle and the nervous cells
(neurons) to respond to certain stimuli by producing electric signals called
action potentials or impulses.
• EXTENSIBILITY – is the ability to be stretched. Like when the biceps muscle
contracts to lift the bone, the triceps muscle then extends or stretched.
• ELASTICITY –the ability of the muscles to return in its original length when
relaxing.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Skeletal muscle is attached to the bone by long ropy strands called tendon. The
skeletal muscles contract or shorten, to move the bones. A muscle only pulls in one
direction. It needs another muscle to pull in the muscle in the opposite direction in
order to return a bone to its original position. When you straighten the arm the triceps
contracts pulling the biceps back to a relax position,
• ISOTONIC – when muscles contract they shorten and movements occurs
• ISOMETRIC – when the muscles contract but the muscles do not shorten or
produce movement.
MUSCLE TONE
The muscle tone is the state when two muscles work against each other, and is always
at the state of slight contraction and ready to pull. Muscle tone is particularly important
in maintaining the posture. If the muscles of the neck, trunk and legs suddenly relax,
the body collapses.
OXYGEN DEBT
Oxygen Debt is the condition when we continuously breathe deeply and pant after
strenuous exercise or work. This continued intake of oxygen is required to complete
the metabolism of lactic acid (acid causing pain to muscles) that accumulated during
the exercise.
NAMING MUSCLES
Muscles are named by location, size, and direction, number of origin, location of origin,
insertion and action; however, not all muscles are named in this manner.
• location - frontalis (forehead)
• size - gluteus maximus ( largest muscles in the buttocks)
• direction of fibers - external abdominal oblique
• number of origins - biceps (two-headed muscles in the humerus)
• location of origin - sternocleidomastoid ( origin is the sternum, clavicle.
master)
Action:
flexor - flexor carpi ulnaris ( flexes the wrist)
extensor - extensor carpi ulnaris (extends the wrist)
levator - raises or lowers body parts
depressor - depresses the corner of the mouth
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Role of Muscles
Muscles have various role in a given movement which is dependent on the

requirement of that movement. Those roles are designated as prime mover,
antagonist, and synergist.
• MOVERS or AGONIST – is a muscle that is directly responsible to producing

a movement.
1. Prime movers – are muscles that do most of the work to produce movement.
2. Assistant movers - are the muscles that help to perform the movements but seem
to be of less important.
• SYNERGIST – are muscles that act as neutralizers or stabilizers. These aids
in the production of the desired motion use to indicate cooperative muscle
functioning in various roles.
1. Stabilizer, fixator, supporting muscles – are the muscles that contracts
statically, to steady or support some part of the body against the pull of the
contracting muscle , against the pull of gravity or any other force that
interferes with the desired movement
2. Neutralizer – is a muscle that acts to prevent an undesired action of the
mover.
• ANTAGONISTS – are muscles that cause the opposite movement from that of
the movers.
MUSCLE FOOD
To keep the muscle working properly, you need a diet that includes protein like eggs,
cheese, milk and dried beans.
EFFECT OF TRAINING ON MUSCLE EFFICIENCY

• Improved coordination of all muscles involved in a particular activity
• Improvement in the respiratory and circulatory system to supply the needs of
an active muscular system
• Elimination and reduction of excess fat
• Improved joint movement involved with that particular muscle activity
EFFECT OF TRAINING ON MUSCLE STRENGTH

STRENGTH (capacity to do work) is increased by proper training. Training can have
the following effects on skeletal muscles:
• Increase in muscle size
• Improved antagonistic muscle coordination, where antagonistic muscles are
relaxed at the right moment and do not interfere with the functioning of the
working muscle
• Improved functioning in the cortical brain region, where the nerve impulses
starts muscular contraction
COMMON EXERCISE AND SPORTS INJURIES

• Muscle Strain – is a tear in the muscle resulting from excessive use. There is
a limited bleeding inside that can result swelling and pain ( ice pack helps to
stop bleeding and swelling)
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• Muscle Spasm (cramp) - is a sustained contraction of the muscle that may

occur due to overuse of muscle. Cramps are caused by the build –up of a waste
substance called lactic acid. Too much lactic acid built up un the muscle causes
there muscle to contract very sharply and painfully.
• Rotator Cuff – is an inflammation of group of tendons that fuse together and
surrounds the shoulder joint. This occurs due to repetitive overhead swinging a
tennis racquet or pitching a ball
• Shin Splint – is an injury to the muscle tendon in the front of the shin that
occurs in jogging. Using the correct running shoes may prevent such an injury
• Tennis Elbow – is an inflamed tendon that connects the arm muscle to elbow..
this may occur carrying heavy luggage, playing tennis or pounding hummer.


Let’s Check
Activity 10. For this activity you are going to demonstrate your deep knowledge
of all the essential terms in skeletal and muscular systems. In this task, read carefully
all the statements and identify the terms/concepts that are being described.
_______________1. are connected to the bones. They are also called voluntary
muscles because the movements they produce are under your
control that maybe rapid or forceful.
_______________2. is an inflamed tendon that connects the arm muscle to elbow.

This may occur carrying heavy luggage, playing tennis or
pounding hummer.
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_______________3. is the ability of the muscle and the nervous cells (neurons) to
respond to certain stimuli by producing electric signals called
action potentials or impulses.
_______________4. is a role of a muscle that is directly responsible to producing a

movement.
_______________5. semi-rigid connective tissue found on the skeleton in areas

where flexibility and smooth surfaces support movement.
_______________6. It is located in the walls of tubular structures and hollow organs

such as the digestive tract, the blood vessels and other internal
organs except the heart.
_______________7. this type has a ball shaped end on one bone that fits into a cup
shaped socket of the other bone allowing the widest range of
motion including rotation.
_______________8. Body movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular

and skeletal systems.
_______________9. in this joint the bones are in a very close contact and are
separated only by thin layer of fibrous connective tissue.
_______________10. is the condition when we continuously breathe deeply and pant

after strenuous exercise or work.
_______________11. is an inflammation of group of tendons that fuse together and

surrounds the shoulder joint.
_______________12. are muscles that cause the opposite movement from that of the
movers.
_______________13. this joint is characterized by bones that are connected by

hyaline cartilage (fibro cartilage).
________________14. is a sustained contraction of the muscle that may occur due to

overuse of muscle.
________________15. is a tear in the muscle resulting from excessive use.
________________16. is a muscle that acts to prevent an undesired action of the

mover.
________________17. organ system composed of bones and cartilage that provides

for movement, support, and protection.
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________________18. allows a bone to move around one central axis. A pivot motion
when you turn the head from side to side.
________________19. connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where fat is

stored.
________________20. To keep the muscle working properly, you need a diet that
includes protein like eggs, cheese, milk and dried beans.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 11. At this juncture, you are required to provide your own opinion of all
the critical questions provided below.
1. Why is elasticity an important quality of muscle tissue?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. The skeletal system is composed of bone and cartilage and has many
functions. Choose three of these functions and discuss what features of the
skeletal system allow it to accomplish these functions.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Describe how tendons facilitate body movement.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Explain how a synergist assists an agonist by being a fixator.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Explain how muscle strain be addressed in an emergency situation.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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In a Nutshell
Activity 12. Finally, in this activity, you are going to provide at least ten
statements each of two major systems based on your own understanding in a form of
summarization of all the topics included in ULOa. Use the table below to summarize
the essential concepts of two major body systems in physical education. You can
make use of bullet form summarization.
Skeletal System Muscular System
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Examine and identify the specific structure
of the skeletal system and muscular system.
Metalanguage
The essential terms for this ULOb have already defined by the previous unit. I
suggest to proceed immediately to the essential knowledge, since this unit focus on
examining and identifying the specific structure of the two major systems in physical
education.
Essential Knowledge
The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of the
body that support and give shape to the body and body structures.
The skeleton consists of the bones of the body. For adults, there are 206 bones in the
skeleton. Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones
fuse together during childhood and adolescence to form an adult bone. The primary
functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid, internal structure that can support the
weight of the body against the force of gravity, and to provide a structure upon which
muscles can act to produce movements of the body.
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The Structure of the Skeletal System
The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of the
body that support and give shape to the body and body structures.
The skeleton consists of the bones of the body. For adults, there are 206 bones in the
skeleton. Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones
fuse together during childhood and adolescence to form an adult bone. The primary
functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid, internal structure that can support the
weight of the body against the force of gravity, and to provide a structure upon which
muscles can act to produce movements of the body.
The lower portion of the skeleton is specialized for stability during walking or
running. In contrast, the upper skeleton has greater mobility and ranges of motion,
features that allow you to lift and carry objects or turn your head and trunk.
In addition to providing for support and movements of the body, the skeleton
has protective and storage functions. It protects the internal organs, including the
brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, and pelvic organs. The bones of the skeleton serve as
the primary storage site for important minerals such as calcium and phosphate. The
bone marrow found within bones stores fat and houses the blood-cell producing tissue
of the body.
DIVISION OF THE SKELETON
The human skeleton is divided into two parts:
• AXIAL Skeleton – consist of the bones that form the axis of the body and
support and protect the organs of the head, neck and trunk.
1. Skull
2. Sternum
3. Ribs
4. Vertebral Column
• APPENDICULAR Skeleton is composed of the bones that anchor the

appendages to the axial skeleton.
1. Upper Extremities
2. Lower Extremities
3. Shoulder Girdle
4. Pelvic Girdle (the sacrum and coccyx are considered part of the vertebral
column)
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Figure 1 – 8. The Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton.
THE AXIAL SKELETON. The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body
and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back (Figure 1 – 8). It serves to
protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site
for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the
shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs. It also consist 80 bones in
an adult.
The Skull
The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is comprised of the eight cranial and
fourteen facial bones. The cranial bones make up the protective frame of bones
around the brain while the facial bones make up the upper and lower jaw and other
facial structures (see Figure 1 – 9):
• CRANIAL BONES
1. frontal – forms the forehead (1)
2. parietal - forms the roof and sides of the skull (2)
3. temporal – house the ears (2)
4. occipital – forms the base of the skull and contains the foramen magnum
(1)
5. sphenoid – is considered the key bone of the skull where all bones are
connected to it (1)
6. ethmoid - located between the eyes that forms the part of the nasal
septum (1)
• FACIAL BONES
1. mandible – forms the lower jaw and the only moveable joint in the head
that provide the chewing motion. (1)
2. maxilla – forms the upper law (2)
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3. palatine – forms the hard palate or the roof of the mouth (2)
4. zygomatic – are the cheek bones (2)
5. lacrimal – help form the orbits or inner aspect of the eyes(2)
6. nasal – forms the bridge of the nose (2)
7. vomer – form parts of the nasal septum ( the divider between the nostrils)
(1)
8. inferior concha – bones which makes-up the side wall of the nasal cavity
(2)
Figure 1 – 9. The Skull (Cranial and Facial divisions).
The Ribs
The ribs are thin, flat curved bones that form a protective cage around the organs in
the upper body. They comprised 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs that form a kind of
cage that encloses the upper body. They give the chest its familiar shape to protect
the heart and lungs from injuries and shocks
The ribs also protects parts of the stomach, spleen and kidneys, during respiration,
the muscles in between the ribs lift the rib cage up to allow the lungs to expand when
you inhale. Then, the rib cage moves down again, squeezing the air out of your lungs
when you exhale.
These bones of the rib cage are divided into three categories namely:
• TRUE RIBS – are the first seven pairs of bones connected to the spine (
backbone) and directly to the breastbone or sternum by a strip of cartilage
called the costal cartilage
• FALSE RIBS – are the next three pairs of bones directly connected to the
spine at the back and are attached to the lowest true ribs in front.
• FLOATING RIBS – are the last two sets of ribs the spine but not connected
to anything in front.
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The Sternum
The sternum is a flat, dagger shaped bone located in the middle of the chest from
where the ribs are connected to it by the costal cartilage.. It is composed of three parts,
the handle called the manubrium, the blade called body and the tip called xiphoid
process
Figure 1 – 10. The Ribs and Sternum Structure.
The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column also called the backbone or spinal column consist of series of
33 irregularly shaped bones called vertebrae, This 33 bones are divide into five
categories depending on where they are located in the backbone.
• CERVICAL VERTEBRAE – the first seven vertebrae located on top of the
vertebral column. These bones form a flexible framework of the neck and
support the head. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas which allows
the head action for the YES and NO.
• THORACIC VERTEBRAE – are the next 12 vertebrae form the anchor of
the rib cage. The bones of the thoracic vertebrae are larger than the cervical
and increase in size from to bottom.
• LUMBAR VERTIBRAE – these five bones are the largest vertebrae in the
spinal column that support most of the bodies weight and are attached to
many of the back muscles
• SACRUM – is the triangular bone located just below the lumbar vertebrae
that consist of four of five sacral vertebrae in a child which fused into a single
bone after age 26. This forms the back wall of the pelvic girdle
• COCCYC – is also called the tailbone consist of 3-5 bones that are fused
together in adult.
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The vertebral column turned into 26 movable parts in adults. In between the vertebrae
are intervertebral discs made of fibrous cartilage that acts as shock absorbers and
allow the back to move. At age 50 to 55 and as the person ages this disc compresses
and shrink. Resulting in a distinct loss of height.
Looking at the side, the spine form four curves called the cervical curve, thoracic,
lumbar and the final curve pelvic or sacral curve. These curves allows human being to
stand upright and help maintain their balance. Any exaggeration on this curves is a
problem. Kyphosis, on the thoracic, lordosis on the lumbar and scoliosis on the side
curvature
Figure 2 – 1. The Vertebral Column Structure.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON. The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of

the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton
(Figure 1 – 8). There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult.
The Upper Extremities

The upper extremity consist of parts, the arm, forearm and the hands (figure 2 – 2).
• ARM – is the region between the shoulder and the elbow consist of a single
long bone called humerus. The humerus is the longest bone in the upper
extremity. The top or the head is large, smooth and rounded that fits into the
scapula in the shoulder. On the bottom end are two depressions where the
humerus connects to the radius and ulna of the forearm.
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• FOREARM - is the region between the elbow and the wrist. It is formed by
the radius on the lateral side and the ulna on the medial side when viewed
on anatomical position. The ulna is longer than the radius and connected
more firmly to the humerus. The radius however contributes more to the
movements of the wrist and hand than the ulna. When the hands are turned
over so that the palm is facing downwards, the radius crosses over the ulna.
• HANDS – have 27 bones and are consist of three parts, the wrist, palms and
fingers.
1. Wrist or Carpals – consist of 8 small bones called carpal bones that are
tightly bound by the ligament. These bones are arranged in two rows of
four bones each
2. Palm or Metacarpal – consist of 4 metacarpal bones one aligned with
each of the fingers. The bases of the metacarpal bones are connected to
the wrist bone and the heads are connected to the bones of the fingers
that form the knuckles of a clenched fist.
3. Fingers or Phalanges – consist of 14 bones called phalanges. The
single finger bone is called phalanx arranged in three rows
Figure 2 – 2. Bones of the upper extremities.
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Lower Extremities
The lower extremities are composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot and patella
(kneecap). The bones of the lower extremities are the heaviest, largest and strongest
bones in the body because they must bear the entire weight of the body when a person
is standing in the upright position.
• THIGH – the region between the hip and the knee composed of a single
bone called femur or thighbone. The femur is the longest , largest and
strongest bone in the body
• LEG - it is the region between the knee and the ankle. It is formed by the
fibula on side away from the body and the tibia or the shin bone. The tibia
connects to the femur to form the knee joint. The tibia is larger that the fibula
because it bears the weight while the fibula serves as an area for muscle
attachment.
• FOOT – contains 26 bones of the ankle, instep the five toes. The ankle is
composed of 7 tarsal bones the largest of which is called calcaneus or heel
bone. The talus rest on top of the calcaneus and is connected to the tibia
that allows the ankle to flex and extend
• PHALANGES or Metatarsal – bones of the foot are similar in number and
position to the metacarpal and phalanges of the hands
• KNEECAP or Patella – is a large triangular sesamoid bone between the
femur and the tibia. The patella protects the knee joint and strengthens the
tendons that forms the knee
The Shoulder Girdle

The shoulder girdle is also called pectoral girdle composed of four bones: 2 clavicles
and 2 scapulae. The pectoral girdle serves as an attachment point for the numerous
muscles that allows the elbow and the shoulder joint to move. It also provides the
connection between the upper extremities and the axial skeleton.
• CLAVICLE – is also known as collar bone. It is a slender S-shaped bone
that connects the upper arm to the trunk of the body and holds the shoulder
joint that allow a greater freedom of movement. One end of the clavicle is
connected to the sternum and one end is connected to the scapula
• SCAPULA – is a large triangular, flat bone on the back side of the rib cage
commonly called the shoulder blade. It overlays the second through the
seventh ribs and serve as attachment for several muscles.
The Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle also called the hip girdle composed of coxal bones that support the
weight of the body from the vertebral column. This basin–shaped pelvis supports the
upper half of your body and protects the soft parts and other body systems. This coxal
bone is composed of the ilium, ischium and pubis
The pelvic girdle differs between man and woman. In man the pelvis is more massive
and the iliac crest is closer together. In woman, the pelvis is more delicate and the iliac
crest is rather apart that reflects the role of women in pregnancy and in the delivery of
children.
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Figure 2 – 3. Bones of the lower extremities.
The Structure of the Muscular System
You have about 650 muscles in your body. While bones give the body structure
and support, they cannot move by themselves. Muscles are need for all body
movements like walking, running , talking, breathing and others. The three functions
of muscles are movement, maintenance of posture, production of body heat and
muscles help give our body its shape. This section focus on the skeletal muscles that
provides movement to the body and are voluntary.
SKELETAL MUSCLES
The following sets of muscles are those directly responsible in producing major body
movements:
• MUSCLES OF THE NECK
1. Sternocleidomastoids – are large muscles extending diagonally down
sides of the neck. Possible movements are flexion, extension and rotation
(twist) of the head (figure 2 – 4).
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Figure 2 – 4. Sternocleidomastoids.
• MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES
1. Trapezius - is a large triangular muscles located at the upper surface of

the back that moves the shoulder and extends the head.
2. Deltoid – is a thick triangular muscle that covers the shoulder joint that
causes the upper arm to abduct.
3. Pectoralis Major – Is located at the anterior part of the chest that flexes
the upper arm and helps and helps to abduct the upper arm.
4. Serratus – is the anterior chest that moves the scapula forward and helps
to raise the arms.
5. Biceps Brachii - is the muscle located at the upper arm to the radius that
helps to flex the lower arm.
6. Triceps Brachii - is found at the posterior arm to the ulna that helps
extend the lower arm.
7. Extensor and Flexor Carpi Muscle Group – are muscles that extend
from the anterior and posterior forearm to the hand. This group moves the
hand.
8. Extensor and Flexor Digitorum Muscle Groups – extends from the

anterior and posterior forearm to the fingers. It moves the fingers.
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Figure 2 – 5. Muscles of the Upper Extremities.
• MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
1. External Intercostals - are found between the ribs. It raises the ribs to
help breathing.
2. Diaphragm - is a dome-shaped muscle separating the thoracic and

abdominal cavities. This helps to control breathing.
3. Rectus Abdominis – is an abdominal muscle that extends from the ribs

to the pelvis that compresses the abdomen.
4. External Oblique – is located at the anterior edge of the last eight ribs that
depresses the ribs, flexes the spinal column and compresses the
abdominal cavity.
5. Internal Oblique – is found directly beneath the external oblique with

fibers running in the opposite direction that depresses the ribs, flexes the
spinal column and compresses the abdominal cavity.
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Figure 2 – 6. Muscles of the Trunk.
• MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES

1. Gluteus Maximus – is the buttocks muscle that stretches the femur and
rotates it outward.
2. Gluteus Medius – a muscle that extends from the deep femur to the
buttocks and the injection site. Its function is to abduct and rotates the
thigh.
3. Tensor Faciae Latae - is a flat muscle found along the upper lateral
surface of the thigh that flexes abduct and medially rotates the thigh.
4. Rectus Femoris – is the anterior thigh that flexes the thigh and extends
the lower leg.
5. Sartorius – is also called tailor’s muscle. It is a long, strap-like muscle that

runs diagonally across the anterior and medial surface of the thigh that
flexes and rotates the thigh and legs.
6. Tibialis Anterior – is located in front of the tibia bone that dorsiflexes the
foot which permits walking on heels.
7. Gastrocnemius – is the calf muscle flexes the lower muscles that points
the toes.
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8. Soleus – is abroad flat muscle found beneath the gastocnemius that

extends the foot.
9. Peroneus Longus – is a superficial muscle found on the lateral side of the

leg that extend and everts the foot and support the arches.
Figure 2 – 7. Muscles of the lower extremities (anterior & posterior)
MUSCLE STRUCTURE AND SIZE
Muscles will only change in size but not in the number of cells. Muscles that have been
injured can regenerate only to a limited degree. If the muscle damage is extensive,
then the muscle tissue is replaced by connective tissue (scar) Muscles that are not
used will atrophy (shrink in size and reduced in strength) and those that are used
excessively will hypertrophy (increase in size). Muscles that are over exercised or
worked will have a tremendous increase of connective tissue between the muscle
fiber. This causes the skeletal muscle to become tougher.
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Notes:
• The largest muscle in your body is the gluteus maximus located in your thigh
and buttocks.
• If you stand on tip toe, you can see the calf muscle in the back of your leg
• The longest muscle in your body is the sartorius muscle in the upper leg
• Some of your arm muscles are attached to the bones in your back. This strong
anchor enables you to pick up the heavier things
• The muscle of the hands allows to make a delicate, accurate and powerful
movement. Your flexible fingers have many small muscles which are useful
for precise job. Your fingers and thumb work together to let you grasp things
tightly to support you if you hang on the bar or support your body when the
body is on an inverted position on a handstand.
• Muscles are attached to the bones that make them move. They can only pull;
they cannot push which is why they always move in pair.


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Let’s Check
Activity 13. Read carefully each question and choose your best answer.
Encircle the letter of your answer.
1. The muscle in the upper arm used as the injection site

a. Biceps b. Deltoid c.Triceps d.Trapezius
2. It the strongest and longest bone is the femur, what is the smallest bone?
a. Hammer b. anvil c. stirrup d. eardrum
3. Muscles are connected to the bones by _______while bone are connected to
another bone.
a. Ligaments b. Tendons c. Musculoskeletal d. Joints
4. The ribs are what type of bones?
a. Flat bones b. sesamoid bones c. irregular bones d. long bones
5. Which of the following are belong to the facial bones?
a. Occipital and sphenoid c. lacrimal and vomer
b. ethmoid and nasal septum \ d. palatine and maxilla
6. It forms parts of the nasal septum (the divider between the nostrils).
a. Vomer b. nasal c. lacrimal d. zygomatic
7. What do you call a bone that forms the lower jaw and the only moveable joint in
the head that provide the chewing motion?
a. Maxilla b. Mandible c. Palatine d. Lacrimal
8. It forms the base of the skull and contains the foramen magnum. What is it?
a. Occipital b. temporal c. frontal d. parietal
9. The arm is the region between the shoulder and the elbow consist of a single long
bone called _________.
a. Tiba b. ulna c. humerus d. radius
10. The ankle is composed of 7 tarsal bones the largest of which is
called___________.
a. Talus b. Calcaneus c. tiba d. metatarsals
11. Kneecap or patella is what type of bone?
a. Irregular b. short c. flat d. sesamoid
12. What is the characteristic of a muscle that has the ability to be stretched?
a. Extensibility b. elasticity c. irritability d. contractibility
13. It is located at the anterior thigh that flexes the thigh and extends the lower leg.
a. Rectus femoris c. vastus lateralis
b. vastus medialis d. vastus intermedius
14. It is the buttocks muscle that stretches the femur and rotates it outward.
a. Gluteus Maximus c. Biceps femoris
b. Gluteus Medius d. semitendinosus
15. It is a broad flat muscle found beneath the gastrocnemius that extends the foot.
a. Soleus c. semimembranosus
b. Semitendinosus d. serratus
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16. The strongest muscle that generally gives the body its beautiful shape is the
buttocks also called _______.
a. Gastrocnemius c. Gluteus Maximus
b. Trapezius d. Rectus femoris
17. The muscle that flexes the joints between the lumbar vertebrae that cause the body
to bow.
a. Internal abdominal oblique c. Rectus abdominis
b. Transverse abdominis d. External abdominal oblique
18. The muscle around the shoulder is a powerful abductor, used to raise the arm
overhead.
a. Deltoid b. Pectoral c. Trapizius d. Biceps Brachii
19. This muscle is located at the posterior side of the arm.
a. Deltoid b. Triceps c. Biceps brachii d. brachialis

20. The following are the basis of naming muscle except one
a. Shape c. Strength of contraction
b. Function d. Sites of attachment
Let’s Analyze
Activity 14. For this activity, you are required to identify and analyze the
structure of the skeletal system and muscular system. Name the bones of the skeletal
system and muscular system with the diagrams provided below.
The Axial Skeleton
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The Appendicular Skeleton
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In a Nutshell
Activity 15. For this task, you are required to demonstrate your deep
knowledge about the structure of the skeletal system and muscular system. Explain
the critical questions and statements provided below:
1. The skeletal system is composed of bones and cartilages and has many
functions. Choose three of these functions and discuss what features of the
skeletal system allow it to accomplish these functions.
a. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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b. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. What are the structural and functional differences between the femur and the
patella?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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3. Diferrentiate Kyphosis, Lordosis and Scoliosis.
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4. Which muscles form the upper leg? How did they function together?
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5. Which muscles forms the forearm and arm? How did they function together?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Analyze the Skeletal Muscles, and their
Lever Systems of Muscle and Bone Interactions.
Metalanguage
To move the skeleton, the tension created by the contraction of the fibers in
most skeletal muscles is transferred to the tendons. The tendons are strong bands of
dense, regular connective tissue that connect muscles to bones. The bone connection
is why this muscle tissue is called skeletal muscle.
The following are some of the key terms under this unit:
Agonist - (also, prime mover) muscle whose contraction is responsible for
producing a particular motion.
Antagonist - muscle that opposes the action of an agonist.
Belly - bulky central body of a muscle.
Bipennate - pennate muscle that has fascicles that are located on both sides of the
tendon.
Circular - also, sphincter) fascicles that are concentrically arranged around an
opening.
Convergent - fascicles that extend over a broad area and converge on a common
attachment site.
Fascicle - muscle fibers bundled by perimysium into a unit.
Fixator - synergist that assists an agonist by preventing or reducing movement
at another joint, thereby stabilizing the origin of the agonist.
Fusiform - muscle that has fascicles that are spindle-shaped to create large
bellies.
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Insertion - end of a skeletal muscle that is attached to the structure (usually a

bone) that is moved when the muscle contracts.
Multipennate - pennate muscle that has a tendon branching within it.
Origin - end of a skeletal muscle that is attached to another structure (usually
a bone) in a fixed position.
Parallel - fascicles that extend in the same direction as the long axis of the
muscle.
Pennate - fascicles that are arranged differently based on their angles to the
tendon.
Prime mover - (also, agonist) principle muscle involved in an action.
Synergist - muscle whose contraction helps a prime mover in an action.
Unipennate - pennate muscle that has fascicles located on one side of the tendon.
Essential Knowledge
To pull on a bone, that is, to change the angle at its synovial joint, which
essentially moves the skeleton, a skeletal muscle must also be attached to a fixed part
of the skeleton. The moveable end of the muscle that attaches to the bone being pulled
is called the muscle’s insertion, and the end of the muscle attached to a fixed
(stabilized) bone is called the origin. During forearm flexion—bending the elbow—
the brachioradialis assists the brachialis.
INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE BODY
Although a number of muscles may be involved in an action, the principal

muscle involved is called the prime mover, or agonist. To lift a cup, a muscle called
the biceps brachii is actually the prime mover; however, because it can be assisted by
the brachialis, the brachialis is called a synergist in this action (Figure 2 – 8). A
synergist can also be a fixator that stabilizes the bone that is the attachment for the
prime mover’s origin. The biceps brachii flex the lower arm. The brachoradialis, in the
forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the upper arm, are both
synergists that aid in this motion.
Figure 2 – 8. Prime Movers and Synergists.
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A muscle with the opposite action of the prime mover is called an antagonist.
Antagonists play two important roles in muscle function: (1) they maintain body or limb
position, such as holding the arm out or standing erect; and (2) they control rapid
movement, as in shadow boxing without landing a punch or the ability to check the
motion of a limb.
For example, to extend the knee, a group of four muscles called the quadriceps
femoris in the anterior compartment of the thigh are activated (and would be called the
agonists of knee extension). However, to flex the knee joint, an opposite or
antagonistic set of muscles called the hamstrings is activated.
As you can see, these terms would also be reversed for the opposing action. If
you consider the first action as the knee bending, the hamstrings would be called the
agonists and the quadriceps femoris would then be called the antagonists. Below is a
list of some agonists and antagonists.
Agonist and Antagonist Skeletal Muscle Pairs

Agonist Antagonist Movement
Biceps brachii: in the Triceps brachii: in the The biceps brachii flexes the
anterior compartment of posterior forearm, whereas the triceps
the arm compartment of the brachii extends it.
arm
Hamstrings: group of Quadriceps femoris: The hamstrings flex the leg,
three muscles in the group of four whereas the quadriceps femoris
posterior compartment muscles in the extend it.
of the thigh anterior compartment
of the thigh
Flexor digitorum Extensor digitorum: The flexor digitorum superficialis
superficialis and flexor in the posterior and flexor digitorum profundus
digitorum profundus: in compartment of the flex the fingers and the hand at
the anterior forearm the wrist, whereas the extensor
compartment of the digitorum extends the fingers
forearm and the hand at the wrist.
There are also skeletal muscles that do not pull against the skeleton for
movements. For example, there are the muscles that produce facial expressions. The
insertions and origins of facial muscles are in the skin, so that certain individual
muscles contract to form a smile or frown, form sounds or words, and raise the
eyebrows. There also are skeletal muscles in the tongue, and the external urinary and
anal sphincters that allow for voluntary regulation of urination and defecation,
respectively. In addition, the diaphragm contracts and relaxes to change the volume
of the pleural cavities but it does not move the skeleton to do this.
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Exercise and Stretching
When exercising, it is important to first warm up the muscles. Stretching pulls

on the muscle fibers and it also results in an increased blood flow to the muscles being
worked. Without a proper warm-up, it is possible that you may either damage some of
the muscle fibers or pull a tendon. A pulled tendon, regardless of location, results in
pain, swelling, and diminished function; if it is moderate to severe, the injury could
immobilize you for an extended period.
THE LEVER SYSTEM OF MUSCLE AND BONE INTERACTIONS
Skeletal muscles do not work by themselves. Muscles are arranged in pairs

based on their functions. For muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton, the
connection determines the force, speed, and range of movement. These
characteristics depend on each other and can explain the general organization of the
muscular and skeletal systems.
The skeleton and muscles act together to move the body. Have you ever used
the back of a hammer to remove a nail from wood? The handle acts as a lever and
the head of the hammer acts as a fulcrum, the fixed point that the force is applied to
when you pull back or push down on the handle. The effort applied to this system is
the pulling or pushing on the handle to remove the nail, which is the load, or
“resistance” to the movement of the handle in the system. Our musculoskeletal system
works in a similar manner, with bones being stiff levers and the articular endings of
the bones—encased in synovial joints—acting as fulcrums. The load would be an
object being lifted or any resistance to a movement (your head is a load when you are
lifting it), and the effort, or applied force, comes from contracting skeletal muscle.
THREE CLASSES OF LEVER
Lever is a rigid bar that is free to move about a fulcrum when an effort force is applied.
There are three classes of levers depending upon the locations of the fulcrum, the
effort force, and the resistance force (Figure 2 – 9).
First Class Lever - the fulcrum is between the effort arm and the resistance arm.
Second Class Lever – the resistance arm is between the fulcrum and the effort arm.
Third Class Lever – the effort arm is between the resistance arm and the fulcrum.
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Figure 2 – 9. Three Classes of Lever.
PHYSICS OF LIFE
1. MOTION. is a change in position in a certain amount of time.
2. SPEED. is the rate at which an object moves. A speed that does not change
is called constant speed. Average speed is the ratio of distance traveled.
3. VELOCITY. is speed in a given direction.
4. ACCELERATION. is the rate of change in velocity.
5. MOMENTUM. Is equal to the mass of an object and the velocity with which it
is traveling. All moving objects have momentum and the more momentum an
object has and the harder it is to stop. The total momentum of an object
remains the same unless outside force act on it The momentum lost by one
object is gained by another ( Conserved momentum).
6. FORCE. is either a push or a pull. It gives energy to an object causing it to start

moving, stop moving or change direction.
7. FRICTION. is a force that acts in a direction opposite to the motion of the

moving object. Friction will cause a moving object to slow down and finally stop.
8. GRAVITY. is the force of attraction that exists between all objects in the
universe.
9. WEIGHT. is a measure of the of the force of gravity on an object.. (gravitational

force)
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10. MASS. is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.
11. PROJECTILE. is a motion when objects are thrown or shot through the air
which can either be horizontal or vertical.
12. PRESSURE. is a force that acts over a certain area.
13. WORK. is a product force applied to an object times the distance through
which the force is applied
14. POWER. is the rate at which work is done.


City Technology (N.D.) Levers have a lot of Class. Retrieved from

http://www.citytechnology.org/stuff-that-works/levers-have-a-lot-of-class
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Let’s Check
Activity 16. This activity will serve as your comprehension checking with all the
concepts of this unit. Read carefully each questions and choose your best answer.
Write the letter of your answer on the line before each number.
_____ 1. Which of the following helps an agonist work?
A. a synergist C. an insertion
B. a fixator D. an antagonist
_____ 2. Which of the following statements is correct about what happens during
flexion?
A. The angle between bones is increased.

B. The angle between bones is decreased.
C. The bone moves away from the body.
D. The bone moves toward the center of the body.
_____ 3. Which is moved the least during muscle contraction?
A. the origin C. the ligaments

B. the insertion D. the joints
_____ 4. The forward movement of a part of the body in a plane such as the arm or
leg is called
A. Insertion C. Protraction
B. Flexion D. Extension
______ 5. When Joseph reach out for his arm to receive money from his father which
pair of action are involved
A. pronation and rotation C. flexion and supination
B. flexion and abduction D. extension and supination
______ 6. The component of a second-class lever are positioned in this sequence
A. Pivot , resistance, effort C. Pivot, effort, resistance

B. Resistance, pivot, effort D. Effort, pivot , effort
______ 7. Lifting a 2 pounds dumbbell with a bent elbow of one arm is considered to
be a:
A. Third class lever C. First class lever
B. Second class lever D. Inclined plane
______ 8. The large muscle group that attaches the leg to the pelvic girdle and
produces extension of the hip joint is the ________ group.
A. Gluteal C. Adductor
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B. Obturator D. Abductor
______ 9. It is the force of attraction that exists between all objects in the universe.
A. Gravity C. Weight
B. Force D. Speed
______ 10. Which is moved the least during muscle contraction?
A. the origin C. the ligaments

B. the insertion D. the joints
Let’s Analyze
Activity 17. In this task, you are required to analyze and classify 5 pairs and
movements. On the first table, make a list of agonist and antagonist list of pairs with
movement. While on second table, you will identify and explain whether the given
picture is first, second or third class lever.
Agonist and Antagonist Skeletal Muscle Pairs
Agonist Antagonist Movement

Ex. Biceps brachii: in the Ex. Triceps brachii: in the Ex. The biceps brachii flexes
anterior compartment of the posterior compartment of the the forearm, whereas the
arm. arm. triceps brachii extends it.
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
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3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.
5. 5. 5.
1.
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2.
3.
5.
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In a Nutshell
Activity 18. Finally, at his juncture, you are going to demonstrate your deep
knowledge about the skeletal systems and their level systems of muscle and bone
interactions. You are task to elaborate the following critical questions:
1. Explain how a synergist assists an agonist by being a fixator.
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2. Movements of the body occur at joints. Describe how muscles are arranged
around the joints of the body.
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3. Explain the importance of the muscle and bone interactions.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture
to:
a. Examine the basic structure and functions of the nervous system;

b. Examine the basic structure and functions of circulatory or
cardiovascular system and;
c. Examine and analyze the structure and functions of respiratory
system.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Examine the basic structure and

functions of the nervous system.
Metalanguage
Throughout this unit, there will be two major systems in anatomy and physiology
that will be discuss. These systems are responsible for the human movements and
body regulations aside from skeletal system and muscular system. Below are some
essential terms in the study of nervous system:
• Axon – single process of the neuron that carries an electrical signal (action
potential) away from the cell body toward a target cell.
• Brain – the large organ of the central nervous system composed of white and
gray matter, contained within the cranium and continuous with the spinal cord.
• Central nervous system (CNS) – anatomical division of the nervous system
located within the cranial and vertebral cavities, namely the brain and spinal
cord.
• Dendrite – one of many branchlike processes that extends from the neuron cell
body and functions as a contact for incoming signals (synapses) from other
neurons or sensory cells.
• Enteric nervous system (ENS) – neural tissue associated with the digestive
system that is responsible for nervous control through autonomic connections.
• Ganglion – localized collection of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous
system.
• Glial cell – one of the various types of neural tissue cells responsible for
maintenance of the tissue, and largely responsible for supporting neurons.
• Gray matter – regions of the nervous system containing cell bodies of neurons
with few or no myelinated axons; actually may be more pink or tan in color, but
called gray in contrast to white matter.
• Integration – nervous system function that combines sensory perceptions and
higher cognitive functions (memories, learning, emotion, etc.) to produce a
response.
• Myelin – lipid-rich insulating substance surrounding the axons of many
neurons, allowing for faster transmission of electrical signals.
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• Nerve – cord-like bundle of axons located in the peripheral nervous system that
transmits sensory input and response output to and from the central nervous
system.
• Neuron – neural tissue cell that is primarily responsible for generating and
propagating electrical signals into, within, and out of the nervous system.
• Nucleus – In the nervous system, a localized collection of neuron cell bodies
that are functionally related; a “center” of neural function.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – anatomical division of the nervous
system that is largely outside the cranial and vertebral cavities, namely all parts
except the brain and spinal cord.
• Process – In cells, an extension of a cell body; in the case of neurons, this
includes the axon and dendrites.
• Response – nervous system function that causes a target tissue (muscle or
gland) to produce an event as a consequence to stimuli.
• Sensation – nervous system function that receives information from the
environment and translates it into the electrical signals of nervous tissue.
• Soma – In neurons, that portion of the cell that contains the nucleus; the cell
body, as opposed to the cell processes (axons and dendrites).
• Somatic nervous system (SNS) – functional division of the nervous system
that is concerned with conscious perception, voluntary movement, and skeletal
muscle reflexes.
• Spinal cord – organ of the central nervous system found within the vertebral
cavity and connected with the periphery through spinal nerves; mediates reflex
behaviors.
• Stimulus – an event in the external or internal environment that registers as
activity in a sensory neuron.
• Tract – bundle of axons in the central nervous system having the same function
and point of origin.
• White matter – regions of the nervous system containing mostly myelinated
axons, making the tissue appear white because of the high lipid content of
myelin.
Essential Knowledge
The nervous system is the body’s main communication network, helping all the
body systems to work properly. It is made up of billions of tiny cells that carry electrical
signals throughout the body.
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – consists of the brain which contains more

that 12 billion active nerve cells and the spinal cord, which extends from the
base of the brain all the way down to your back. It is protected by the rings of
your bone in your spine. Together, they act as the central processing unit,
collecting information from every part of the body. The messages flow around
the body through a highly complex system of nerves, while some information is
acted on immediately, others are stored.
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• PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – is the network of small nerves that

extends to all parts of the body. It comprises cranial nerves that emerge from
the brain and spinal nerve in the spinal cord.
• AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) – functional division of the nervous
system that is responsible for homeostatic reflexes that coordinate control of
cardiac and smooth muscle, as well as glandular tissue.
The nervous system can be divided into two major regions: the central and
peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) is the brain and
spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is everything else (Figure 2 –
10). The brain is contained within the cranial cavity of the skull, and the spinal cord is
contained within the vertebral cavity of the vertebral column. It is a bit of an
oversimplification to say that the CNS is what is inside these two cavities and the
peripheral nervous system is outside of them, but that is one way to start to think about
it. In actuality, there are some elements of the peripheral nervous system that are
within the cranial or vertebral cavities. The peripheral nervous system is so named
because it is on the periphery—meaning beyond the brain and spinal cord. Depending
on different aspects of the nervous system, the dividing line between central and
peripheral is not necessarily universal.
Figure 2 – 10. Central and Peripheral Nervous system.
Nerves carry messages of sensation, proprioception and movement instructions to

muscles. Some impulses are so fast that they do a loop on the spinal cord sending
back an instant message to the muscle (reflexes).
Nerves also extend message to the internal organs to keep lungs, heart, digestive
system, reproductive and other organs working and responding properly. The nerves
that control these involuntary activities form the unconscious autonomic parts of the
nervous system.
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Nerve Cells
Nerve cells or neurons make up the nerves that carry messages around the body.
They have a star-shaped body containing the cell nucleus with a thread-like fiber called
the axon. The tip of the axon is branched and touches other neurons to which it derives
messages or nerve impulses. Neurons have many smaller threads and branches
called dendrites which receives other messages from other neurons.
Types of Nerve Cells

There are three types of neurons with different functions:
• MOTOR NEURONES – are neurons that control muscle works
• SENSORY NEURONES – are neurons that carry messages from the
sense organs
• CONNECTOR NEURONES – are those that pass messages between
different parts of the nervous systems
Synapse
SYNAPSE is the point where the tiny bulb on the tip of a nerve fiver contacts another
neuron. It is a point where transmitter substance carries the electrical signal from the
neuron to the next.
Figure 3 – 1. Types of Neurons.
NERVE IMPULSE
Nerve impulse is like a very simple message either on or off. Because there are
so many neurons connected to one another, this simple signal is enough to carry the
most complicated messages throughout the whole of the body’s nervous system
As a nerve impulse arrives at the junction between two nerve cells, it is carried across
the gap or the synapse by the chemicals called neurotransmitters. These contact
sensitive areas in the next nerve cell, and the nerve impulse is carried along.
REFLEX MOVEMENT
Reflexes are automatic reaction that takes place without your needing to think
about them. Like if you prick your finger, you jerk your arm instantly even before your
brain becomes aware that some damage has taken place. These reflexes take place
in the spinal cord where instructions are given to the muscles to pull your arms away
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as soon as the nerves have detected pain or damage. Reflexes also take place in the
body maintaining normal conditions. Like when food enters the stomach the flow of
digestive juice immediately starts. Another example is the blink when dirt enters in
your eye and tears flows out to cleans the eye
THE BRAIN
The brain is the largest organ of the central nervous system and the body’s
control center. It coordinates all the messages that pass through the nervous system,
giving as the ability to learn reason and feel. It also controls the body’s automatic
functions such as breathing, heartbeat, digestion growth and blood pressure.
The bony cranium that surrounds the brain is cushioned by three layers of tough
membranes called the meninges. They are filled with liquid in which the brain floats.
The cavities inside the brain are filled with the same liquid so that the soft tissue does
not flap about. The brain tissue has three main layers:
• Inner layer which surrounds the ventricle consist of nerve cells that
controls instinctive behavior.
• Middle layer of white matter consist of primary nerve fibers control
instinctive behavior.
• Outer surface layer called the cerebral cortex or gray matter which
consist of layers of nerve cells that controls conscious though, movement
and sensations.
Figure 3 – 2. Gray Matter and White Matter. A brain removed during an autopsy,
with a partial section removed, shows white matter surrounded by gray matter. Gray
matter makes up the outer cortex of the brain.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN

The brain is divided into three main regions each with different function.
• CEREBRUM – is the part of the brain that gives you your intelligence and
emotions. It makes up almost 90% of the brain’s tissue. Its grey surface is made
up of millions of nerve cells. The white layers beneath is mostly made of the
nerve fibers connecting them. A narrow strip across the top of cerebrum called
the cerebral cortex is concerned with organizing your movement. Another part
of the cerebrum is the sensory cortex, where senses such as touch, vision and
hearing are controlled. This part shows the relative importance of some of our
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senses. A large part of the cerebrum is concerned with the hands, eyes and
mouth because they are highly sensitive areas.
• CEREBELLUM – is the smaller hemisphere that sits below the cerebrum. It

controls posture, balance, maintenance of muscle tone and muscle
coordination. Fine movements are possible because the cerebellum filters
instruction from other parts of the brain. It monitors these instructions and
insures that the muscles work together. This part of the brain is well understood.
Its neurons are arranged in a regular pattern that makes it possible to trace the
electrical circuit from one neuron to another.
• BRAIN STEM – connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brain stem is
sometimes called the oldest, part of the brain. This is because it keeps the
whole body alive. Even if the other parts of the brain are destroyed, the brain
stem often keeps a person alive for some time. It contains the mid brain
controls eye and hearing reflexes and conduct impulses that controls the sleep-
wake cycle. the pons controls respiration, chewing and taste and the medulla
that controls crucial function of the heart, lungs, stomach and blood vessels.
Figure 3 – 3. Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Brain Stem.
THE SPINAL CORD - The spinal cord continues down from the brain. Like the brain
it is submerge in cerebro-spinal fluid and is surrounded by the three meninges. The
gray matter in the spinal cord is located in the internal section and the white matter
composes the outer part. The spinal cord functions as a reflex center and as a
conduction pathway to and from the brain (Figure 3 – 4).
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Figure 3 – 4. Parts of the Spinal Cord.
FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND OTHER BASIC

FUNCTIONS
The nervous system can also be divided on the basis of its functions, but
anatomical divisions and functional divisions are different. The CNS and the PNS both
contribute to the same functions, but those functions can be attributed to different
regions of the brain (such as the cerebral cortex or the hypothalamus) or to different
ganglia in the periphery. The problem with trying to fit functional differences into
anatomical divisions is that sometimes the same structure can be part of several
functions. For example, the optic nerve carries signals from the retina that are either
used for the conscious perception of visual stimuli, which takes place in the cerebral
cortex, or for the reflexive responses of smooth muscle tissue that are processed
through the hypothalamus.
There are two ways to consider how the nervous system is divided functionally.
First, the basic functions of the nervous system are sensation, integration, and
response. Secondly, control of the body can be somatic or autonomic—divisions that
are largely defined by the structures that are involved in the response. There is also a
region of the peripheral nervous system that is called the enteric nervous system that
is responsible for a specific set of the functions within the realm of autonomic control
related to gastrointestinal functions.
The nervous system is involved in receiving information about the environment

around us (sensation) and generating responses to that information (motor
responses). The nervous system can be divided into regions that are responsible
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for sensation (sensory functions) and for the response (motor functions). But there
is a third function that needs to be included. Sensory input needs to be integrated with
other sensations, as well as with memories, emotional state, or learning (cognition).
Some regions of the nervous system are termed integration or association areas. The
process of integration combines sensory perceptions and higher cognitive functions
such as memories, learning, and emotion to produce a response.
1. Sensation. The first major function of the nervous system is sensation—receiving

information about the environment to gain input about what is happening outside
the body (or, sometimes, within the body). The sensory functions of the nervous
system register the presence of a change from homeostasis or a particular event
in the environment, known as a stimulus. The senses we think of most are the
“big five”: taste, smell, touch, sight, and hearing. The stimuli for taste and smell
are both chemical substances (molecules, compounds, ions, etc.), touch is
physical or mechanical stimuli that interact with the skin, sight is light stimuli, and
hearing is the perception of sound, which is a physical stimulus similar to some
aspects of touch. There are actually more senses than just those, but that list
represents the major senses. Those five are all senses that receive stimuli from
the outside world, and of which there is conscious perception. Additional sensory
stimuli might be from the internal environment (inside the body), such as the
stretch of an organ wall or the concentration of certain ions in the blood.
2. Response. The nervous system produces a response on the basis of the stimuli
perceived by sensory structures. An obvious response would be the movement
of muscles, such as withdrawing a hand from a hot stove, but there are broader
uses of the term. The nervous system can cause the contraction of all three types
of muscle tissue. For example, skeletal muscle contracts to move the skeleton,
cardiac muscle is influenced as heart rate increases during exercise, and smooth
muscle contracts as the digestive system moves food along the digestive tract.
Responses also include the neural control of glands in the body as well, such as
the production and secretion of sweat by the eccrine and merocrine sweat glands
found in the skin to lower body temperature.
Responses can be divided into those that are voluntary or conscious (contraction
of skeletal muscle) and those that are involuntary (contraction of smooth muscles,
regulation of cardiac muscle, activation of glands). Voluntary responses are
governed by the somatic nervous system and involuntary responses are
governed by the autonomic nervous system, which are discussed in the next
section.
3. Integration. Stimuli that are received by sensory structures are communicated to

the nervous system where that information is processed. This is called
integration. Stimuli are compared with, or integrated with, other stimuli, memories
of previous stimuli, or the state of a person at a particular time. This leads to the
specific response that will be generated. Seeing a baseball pitched to a batter will
not automatically cause the batter to swing. The trajectory of the ball and its speed
will need to be considered. Maybe the count is three balls and one strike, and the
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batter wants to let this pitch go by in the hope of getting a walk to first base. Or
maybe the batter’s team is so far ahead, it would be fun to just swing away.
CONTROLLING THE BODY
The nervous system can be divided into two parts mostly on the basis of a
functional difference in responses. The somatic nervous system (SNS) is
responsible for conscious perception and voluntary motor responses. Voluntary motor
response means the contraction of skeletal muscle, but those contractions are not
always voluntary in the sense that you have to want to perform them. Some somatic
motor responses are reflexes, and often happen without a conscious decision to
perform them. If your friend jumps out from behind a corner and yells “Boo!” you will
be startled and you might scream or leap back. You didn’t decide to do that, and you
may not have wanted to give your friend a reason to laugh at your expense, but it is a
reflex involving skeletal muscle contractions. Other motor responses become
automatic (in other words, unconscious) as a person learns motor skills (referred to as
“habit learning” or “procedural memory”).
The Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is responsible for involuntary control

of the body, usually for the sake of homeostasis (regulation of the internal
environment). Sensory input for autonomic functions can be from sensory structures
tuned to external or internal environmental stimuli. The motor output extends to
smooth and cardiac muscle as well as glandular tissue. The role of the autonomic
system is to regulate the organ systems of the body, which usually means to control
homeostasis. Sweat glands, for example, are controlled by the autonomic system.
When you are hot, sweating helps cool your body down. That is a homeostatic
mechanism. But when you are nervous, you might start sweating also. That is not
homeostatic, it is the physiological response to an emotional state.
Figure 3 – 5. Somatic, Autonomic, and Enteric Structures of the Nervous System.
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Somatic structures include the spinal nerves, both motor and sensory fibers, as
well as the sensory ganglia (posterior root ganglia and cranial nerve ganglia).
Autonomic structures are found in the nerves also, but include the sympathetic and
parasympathetic ganglia. The enteric nervous system includes the nervous tissue
within the organs of the digestive tract.
There is another division of the nervous system that describes functional

responses. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is responsible for controlling the
smooth muscle and glandular tissue in your digestive system. It is a large part of the
PNS, and is not dependent on the CNS. It is sometimes valid, however, to consider
the enteric system to be a part of the autonomic system because the neural structures
that make up the enteric system are a component of the autonomic output that
regulates digestion. There are some differences between the two, but for our purposes
here there will be a good bit of overlap. See Figure 3 – 5 for examples of where these
divisions of the nervous system can be found.


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Let’s Check
Activity 19. Fill in the boxes and indicate the function of each component of
the human nervous system.
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 20. Using the terms and phrases provided below, complete the
concept map showing the structures of the nervous system.
Central nervous system Parasympathetic neurons Spinal Cord

Interneurons Peripheral nervous system Sympathetic division
Motor neurons Somatic nervous system Synapses
Neurons
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In a Nutshell
Activity 21. Finally at this juncture, you are going to provide your explaining to
the critical questions provided below.
1. What responses are generated by the nervous system when you run on a
treadmill? Include an example of each type of tissue that is under nervous
system control.
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2. When eating food, what anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous
system are involved in the perceptual experience?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Examine the basic structure and functions
of circulatory or cardiovascular system.
Metalanguage
The circulatory system is also known as cardiovascular system that is

responsible for the movement of blood in the body. It carries energy, hormones,
nutrients, gases and more through blood in the body and has a huge influence on
movement efficiency and performance. Below are the essential terms pertaining to
circulatory or cardiovascular system:
• Albumin – most abundant plasma protein, accounting for most of the osmotic
pressure of plasma.
• Antibodies – (also, immunoglobulins or gamma globulins) antigen-specific
proteins produced by specialized B lymphocytes that protect the body by
binding to foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.
• Blood – liquid connective tissue composed of formed elements—erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets—and a fluid extracellular matrix called plasma;
component of the cardiovascular system.
• Buffy coat – thin, pale layer of leukocytes and platelets that separates the
erythrocytes from the plasma in a sample of centrifuged blood.
• Fibrinogen – plasma protein produced in the liver and involved in blood clotting
• Formed elements – cellular components of blood; that is, erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets.
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• Globulins – heterogeneous group of plasma proteins that includes transport

proteins, clotting factors, immune proteins, and others.
• Hematocrit – also, packed cell volume) volume percentage of erythrocytes in
a sample of centrifuged blood.
• Immunoglobulins – (also, antibodies or gamma globulins) antigen-specific
proteins produced by specialized B lymphocytes that protect the body by
binding to foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.
• Packed cell volume (PCV) – (also, hematocrit) volume percentage of
erythrocytes present in a sample of centrifuged blood.
• Plasma – In blood, the liquid extracellular matrix composed mostly of water that
circulates the formed elements and dissolved materials throughout the
cardiovascular system.
• Platelets – (also, thrombocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that
consists of cell fragments broken off from megakaryocytes.
• Red blood cells (RBCs) – (also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of
blood that transports oxygen.
• White blood cells (WBCs) – (also, leukocytes) one of the formed elements of
blood that provides defense against disease agents and foreign materials.
Essential Knowledge
To demonstrate ULOb, this section will unfold the structure and functions of the
circulatory or cardiovascular system in the human body. I suggest to refer back to
essential terms for you to be guided and for difficulties in studying the basic concept
of the said topics.
The circulatory system is the longest system of the body which includes the following
organs:
• HEART – is the muscular pump which is responsible for circulating blood
throughout the body.
• BLOOD VESSELS – which includes the arteries, veins and capillaries are the
structures that takes the blood from the heart to the cells and return blood from
the cells back to the heart.
• BLOOD – carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and carries the waste
products away.
• LYMPH – return excess fluid from the tissue to the general circulation, The
lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and filter out pathogenic bacteria.
1. THE HEART
The heart is a four-chamber muscular organ about the size of a closed fist that
functions as a powerful pump. It is located in the chest between the lungs
behind the sternum and above the diaphragm, just to the left of center. The
heart continuously pumps blood through the body’s extensive network of
arteries and veins, delivers oxygen and nutrients and removes waste products.
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2. CHAMBERS
The human heart is divided into right and left halves by the septum and each
half is divided into two parts, thus creating four chambers. The upper chambers
are the right and left atrium (auricle) acts as a receiving chamber and contracts
to push blood into the lower chambers, the right ventricle and the left ventricle.
The lower chambers are the right and left ventricle. The ventricles serve as the
primary pumping chambers of the heart, propelling blood to the lungs or to the
rest of the body.
3. VALVES
The heart has two pairs of valves that regulate blood flow within. These valves
prevent them from flowing back blood as the heart open and close during
contraction.
• ATRIOVENTRICULAR or A V – are valves located between the atria and the
ventricle.
o Tricuspid valve – is a valve with 3 points of attachment positioned
between the right atrium and right ventricle. It allows the blood to flow
from the right atrium down to the right ventricle.
o Bicuspid – a 2 point attachment valve located at the left side of the heart,
regulating the blood flow from the left atrium down to the left ventricle.
• SEMI-LUNAR Valve – are valves located where the blood will leave the heart.
o Pulmonary – is found at the orifice (opening) of the pulmonary artery
where the blood travels from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery
then into the lungs.
o Aortic –is found at the orifice of the aorta. This valve permit the blood to
pass from the left ventricle into aorta to the different body parts.
Figure 3 – 6. The Structure of the Human Heart.
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4. SOUNDS
The sound of the heartbeat is created by the two sets of heart valves closing
during the cardiac cycle that can be heard through the stethoscope and are
described phonetically as “lub-dub”. The lub sound is produced by the closing
of the AV valve called systole. The dub sound is made by the closing of the
semi-lunar valves known as diastole.
5. CARDIAC CYCLE
Cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart
during one heartbeat. It takes about four fifths of a second to complete then
repeat continuously. The cycle consist of two phases, in systole the ventricle
contract, forcing the blood into the arteries out of the heart. In diastole the
ventricle relaxes and fill it with blood.
6. BLOOD CIRCULATION
The heart functions as a double pump. Two major functions occur each time
the heart beats. The pumping actions occur at the same time. Each time the
ventricle contracts, blood leave the right ventricle to go to the lungs to be
oxygenated, and the blood leaves the left ventricle to go to the aorta carrying
oxygen and nutrients to the cells and tissues (Figure 3 – 7).
• RIGHT HEART – the deoxygenated blood flows into the heart from the
superior and inferior vena cava, to the right atrium down to the right
ventricle to the pulmonary artery towards the lungs for the exchange of
gases
• LEFT HEART – the oxygenated blood from the lungs flows into the
heart through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium down the left ventricle,
to the aorta to general body circulation
7. TYPES OF CIRCULATION
• PULMONARY CIRCULATION – is the shorter blood circuit where the

used blood is pumped into the lungs, picks up oxygen and discard
carbon dioxide, then the blood returns into the heart.
• SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION – occurs when the oxygenated blood
returns to the heart and pumps the blood throughout to the different
systems of the body and back to the heart.
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Figure 3 – 7. Dual Systems of the Human Blood Circulation.
8. THE BLOOD
The blood contains the red and white blood cells that float inside a liquid
called plasma, it also contains thousands of different substances needed in
the body .Blood carries all these things around the body and also removes the
waste products. It is part of the bodies communication system, that carries
chemical messengers called hormones that switch organs on and off as
required.
9. FUNCTIONS
The primary function of blood is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to and remove
wastes from body cells, but that is only the beginning of the story. The specific
functions of blood also include defense, distribution of heat, and maintenance
of homeostasis.
• TRANSPORTATION - Nutrients from the foods you eat are absorbed in
the digestive tract. Most of these travel in the bloodstream directly to the
liver, where they are processed and released back into the bloodstream
for delivery to body cells. Moreover, endocrine glands scattered
throughout the body release their products, called hormones, into the
bloodstream, which carries them to distant target cells.
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• RESPIRATORY – transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and

release carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Thus, oxygen from
the air you breathe diffuses into the blood, which moves from the lungs
to the heart, which then pumps it out to the rest of the body.
• REGULATORY - transport hormones and other chemical substances
that control the proper functioning of many organs. It also controls body
temperature by circulating excess heat to the body surfaces and to the
lungs through which it is lost. It maintain water balance and a constant
environment for tissue cells.
• NUTRITIVE – transport nutrient molecules from the small intestine to the
tissues.
• PROTECTIVE – circulate the antibodies and defensive cells throughout
the body to fight against infection and disease.
• EXCRETORY – Blood also picks up cellular wastes and byproducts, and
transports them to various organs for removal. For instance, blood
moves carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation from the body, and
various waste products are transported to the kidneys and liver for
excretion from the body in the form of urine or bile. Transporting waste
product like lactic acid, urea and creatinine from the cells to the
excretory organs.
• DEFENSE – Many types of WBCs protect the body from external threats,
such as disease-causing bacteria that have entered the bloodstream in
a wound. Other WBCs seek out and destroy internal threats, such as
cells with mutated DNA that could multiply to become cancerous, or body
cells infected with viruses. When damage to the vessels results in
bleeding, blood platelets and certain proteins dissolved in the plasma,
the fluid portion of the blood, interact to block the ruptured areas of the
blood vessels involved. This protects the body from further blood loss.
• MAINTENANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS - If you were exercising on a warm

day, your rising core body temperature would trigger several
homeostatic mechanisms, including increased transport of blood from
your core to your body periphery, which is typically cooler. As blood
passes through the vessels of the skin, heat would be dissipated to the
environment, and the blood returning to your body core would be cooler.
In contrast, on a cold day, blood is diverted away from the skin to
maintain a warmer body core. In extreme cases, this may result in
frostbite. Blood also helps to maintain the chemical balance of the body.
Proteins and other compounds in blood act as buffers, which thereby
help to regulate the pH of body tissues. Blood also helps to regulate the
water content of body cells.
10. BLOOD CELLS
In one tiny drop of blood, there are red cells, white cells and platelets, all floating
in a liquid called plasma.
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• RED BLOOD CELLS (Erythrocytes) - transport oxygen to the tissues

picks up carbon dioxide away from the tissues and give up carbon
dioxide to the lungs.
• WHITE BLOOD CELLS (Leucocytes) – are blood cells manufactured in
both red marrow and lymphatic tissues. It helps protect the body against
infections and injuries.
• BLOOD PLATELETS ( Thrombocytes) - are the smallest of the solid
components of the blood. The platelets function in the initiation of the
blood-clotting process. The platelets are then stimulated to produce
sticky projecting structure creating a platelet plug to stop the bleeding.
11. BLOOD TYPES
The knowledge of one’s particular type of blood is important in cases of blood

transfusions and surgery. A test called type and cross match is done before
giving blood transfusion to test blood compatibility.
To avoid transfusion reactions, it is best to transfuse only matching blood types;

that is, a type B+ recipient should ideally receive blood only from a type B+ donor
and so on. That said, in emergency situations, when acute hemorrhage
threatens the patient’s life, there may not be time for cross matching to identify
blood type. In these cases, blood from a universal donor—an individual with
type O− blood—may be transfused.
There are four main types of blood:

• O – is the blood type that can only receive type O blood, but is a universal
donor to all blood types.
• A - is a blood type that can receive A and O only but can donate blood
to A and AB only.
• B – is a blood type that can receive B and O only and AB. This letters
refer to chemicals on the surface of the red blood cells.
• AB – is a universal recipient , that can receive blood type A, B, AB,O but
can donate only to AB blood type.
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Figure 3 – 8. Blood Type Compatibility.
12. THE BLOOD VESSELS
Blood flows around your body through a network of tubes called blood
vessels. There are three types of blood vessels namely arteries, veins and
capillaries.
• ARTERIES – carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the
capillaries except the pulmonary arteries that carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs. Because the blood in arteries comes
straight from the heart and is pumped under pressure, so the artery walls
are thick and muscular.
• VEINS – carries deoxygenated blood away from the capillaries, towards
the heart. Because the pressure is now lower, the veins have thinner
wall that the arteries.
• CAPILLARIES – are the smallest blood vessels where the exchange of
gases and nutrients takes place. It is so narrow that the RBC has to
squash themselves up to pass through.
13. PULSE
The pulse is a throbbing beat that can be felt on the inside of your wrist and in
the side of your neck. It is the alternating expansion and contraction of an artery
as blood flows through it.
14. HEART RATE
The heart rate is the number of times that the heart contracts in a minute. The
practical ways of taking your pulse rate is by finding the pulse on your wrist or
neck and gently holding your fingers (the index and middle fingers) on it and
counting the number of beats per minute.
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15. Blood Pressure
When the heart pumps blood into the arteries the surge of blood filling the
vessels create pressure against the wall. The pressures measured at the
moment of the contraction is the systolic pressure while the lessen force of the
blood measured when the heart relax is the diastolic pressure. The average
blood pressure is recorded as 120/80 with a normal pulse pressure of 40.


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Let’s Check
Activity 22. To demonstrate part of the ULOb, it is essential to assess your

knowledge about the structure of the human heart. Fill all the parts of the human heart
in line with the arrows below using the diagram of the human heart.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 23. Modified True or False: Each statement represents the concept of
circulatory system. If the statement is true, write “T” before your supporting statement,
and if false, write “F” before your arguments to the statement.
1. A type B+ recipient should ideally receive blood only from a type B+ donor and so
on.
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_______________________________________________________________
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2. As functions of the heart, regulatory/regulation is not included.
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3. There are two major functions of the heart.
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In a Nutshell
Activity 24. Finally, you are about to provide your deep knowledge about the
basic structure and functions of the circulatory system. In this task, you are going to
explain the following critical thinking questions below.
1. Following a motor vehicle accident, a patient is rushed to the emergency

department with multiple traumatic injuries, causing severe bleeding. The
patient’s condition is critical, and there is no time for determining his blood type.
What type of blood is transfused, and why?
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2. Describe how the valves keep the blood moving in one direction.
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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Why is the pressure in the pulmonary circulation lower than in the systemic
circulation?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Examine the basic structure and functions
of respiratory system.
Metalanguage
The body requires a constant supply of energy for the cells to perform their
many chemical activities. Oxygen facilitates the release of energy stored in nutrient
molecules. It must be in constant supply to the body because without oxygen a human
being can live no more than few minutes at best. Below are essential terms in
respiratory system:
• Alar cartilage – cartilage that supports the apex of the nose and helps shape
the nares; it is connected to the septal cartilage and connective tissue of the
alae.
• Alveolar duct – small tube that leads from the terminal bronchiole to the
respiratory bronchiole and is the point of attachment for alveoli.
• Alveolar pore – opening that allows airflow between neighboring alveoli
• Alveolar sac – cluster of alveoli.
• Alveolus – small, grape-like sac that performs gas exchange in the lungs.
• Apex – tip of the external nose.
• Bronchial tree – collective name for the multiple branches of the bronchi and
bronchioles of the respiratory system.
• Bronchiole – branch of bronchi that are 1 mm or less in diameter and terminate
at alveolar sacs.
• Bronchus – tube connected to the trachea that branches into many
subsidiaries and provides a passageway for air to enter and leave the lungs.
• Conducting zone – region of the respiratory system that includes the organs
and structures that provide passageways for air and are not directly involved in
gas exchange.
• Cricoid cartilage – portion of the larynx composed of a ring of cartilage with a
wide posterior region and a thinner anterior region; attached to the esophagus
• Dorsum nasi – Intermediate portion of the external nose that connects the
bridge to the apex and is supported by the nasal bone.
• Epiglottis – leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is a portion of the larynx
that swings to close the trachea during swallowing.
• Fauces – portion of the posterior oral cavity that connects the oral cavity to the
oropharynx.
• Fibroelastic membrane – specialized membrane that connects the ends of the
C-shape cartilage in the trachea; contains smooth muscle fibers.
• Glottis – opening between the vocal folds through which air passes when
producing speech.
• Laryngeal prominence – region where the two lamina of the thyroid cartilage
join, forming a protrusion known as “Adam’s apple”.
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• Laryngopharynx – portion of the pharynx bordered by the oropharynx

superiorly and esophagus and trachea inferiorly; serves as a route for both air
and food.
• Larynx – cartilaginous structure that produces the voice, prevents food and
beverages from entering the trachea, and regulates the volume of air that enters
and leaves the lungs.
• Nasal septum – wall composed of bone and cartilage that separates the left
and right nasal cavities.
• Nasopharynx – portion of the pharynx flanked by the conchae and oropharynx
that serves as an airway.
• Oropharynx – portion of the pharynx flanked by the nasopharynx, oral cavity,
and laryngopharynx that is a passageway for both air and food.
• Palatine tonsil – one of the paired structures composed of lymphoid tissue
located anterior to the uvula at the roof of isthmus of the fauces.
• Paranasal sinus – one of the cavities within the skull that is connected to the
conchae that serve to warm and humidify incoming air, produce mucus, and
lighten the weight of the skull; consists of frontal, maxillary, sphenoidal, and
ethmoidal sinuses.
• Pharyngeal tonsil – structure composed of lymphoid tissue located in the
nasopharynx.
• Pharynx – region of the conducting zone that forms a tube of skeletal muscle
lined with respiratory epithelium; located between the nasal conchae and the
esophagus and trachea.
• Respiratory bronchiole – specific type of bronchiole that leads to alveolar
sacs.
• Respiratory membrane – alveolar and capillary wall together, which form an
air-blood barrier that facilitates the simple diffusion of gases.
• Respiratory zone – Includes structures of the respiratory system that are
directly involved in gas exchange.
• Thyroid cartilage – largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx and
consists of two lamina.
• Trachea – tube composed of cartilaginous rings and supporting tissue that
connects the lung bronchi and the larynx; provides a route for air to enter and
exit the lung.
• True vocal cord – one of the pair of folded, white membranes that have a free
inner edge that oscillates as air passes through to produce sound.
• Type I alveolar cell – squamous epithelial cells that are the major cell type in
the alveolar wall; highly permeable to gases.
• Type II alveolar cell – cuboidal epithelial cells that are the minor cell type in
the alveolar wall; secrete pulmonary surfactant.
• Vestibular fold – part of the folded region of the glottis composed of mucous
membrane; supports the epiglottis during swallowing.
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Essential Knowledge
The major organs of the respiratory system function primarily to provide oxygen
to body tissues for cellular respiration, remove the waste product carbon dioxide, and
help to maintain acid-base balance. Portions of the respiratory system are also used
for non-vital functions, such as sensing odors, speech production, and for straining,
such as during childbirth or coughing (Figure 3 – 9).
Figure 3 – 9. Major Respiratory Structures span the nasal cavity to the diaphragm.
Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and
a respiratory zone. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the
organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs
in the respiratory zone.
CONDUCTING ZONE
The major functions of the conducting zone are to provide a route for incoming
and outgoing air, remove debris and pathogens from the incoming air, and warm and
humidify the incoming air. Several structures within the conducting zone perform other
functions as well. The epithelium of the nasal passages, for example, is essential to
sensing odors, and the bronchial epithelium that lines the lungs can metabolize some
airborne carcinogens.
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1. The Nose and its Adjacent Structures
The major entrance and exit for the respiratory system is through the
nose. When discussing the nose, it is helpful to divide it into two major sections:
the external nose, and the nasal cavity or internal nose.
The external nose consists of the surface and skeletal structures that
result in the outward appearance of the nose and contribute to its numerous
functions (Figure 3 – 10). The root is the region of the nose located between
the eyebrows. The bridge is the part of the nose that connects the root to the
rest of the nose. The dorsum nasi is the length of the nose. The apex is the
tip of the nose. On either side of the apex, the nostrils are formed by the alae
(singular = ala). An ala is a cartilaginous structure that forms the lateral side of
each naris (plural = nares), or nostril opening. The philtrum is the concave
surface that connects the apex of the nose to the upper lip.
Figure 3 – 10. The External and Internal Nose Structures.
Underneath the thin skin of the nose are its skeletal features (see Figure
3 – 10.). While the root and bridge of the nose consist of bone, the protruding
portion of the nose is composed of cartilage. As a result, when looking at a
skull, the nose is missing. The nasal bone is one of a pair of bones that lies
under the root and bridge of the nose. The nasal bone articulates superiorly
with the frontal bone and laterally with the maxillary bones. Septal cartilage is
flexible hyaline cartilage connected to the nasal bone, forming the dorsum nasi.
The alar cartilage consists of the apex of the nose; it surrounds the naris.
The nares open into the nasal cavity, which is separated into left and
right sections by the nasal septum (Figure 4 – 1). The nasal septum is formed
anteriorly by a portion of the septal cartilage (the flexible portion you can touch
with your fingers) and posteriorly by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
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(a cranial bone located just posterior to the nasal bones) and the thin vomer
bones (whose name refers to its plough shape). Each lateral wall of the nasal
cavity has three bony projections, called the superior, middle, and inferior nasal
conchae. The inferior conchae are separate bones, whereas the superior and
middle conchae are portions of the ethmoid bone.
Conchae serve to increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and to
disrupt the flow of air as it enters the nose, causing air to bounce along the
epithelium, where it is cleaned and warmed. The conchae and meatuses also
conserve water and prevent dehydration of the nasal epithelium by trapping
water during exhalation. The floor of the nasal cavity is composed of the palate.
The hard palate at the anterior region of the nasal cavity is composed of bone.
The soft palate at the posterior portion of the nasal cavity consists of muscle
tissue. Air exits the nasal cavities via the internal nares and moves into the
pharynx.
Figure 4 – 1. Upper Airway.
Several bones that help form the walls of the nasal cavity have air-
containing spaces called the paranasal sinuses, which serve to warm and
humidify incoming air. Sinuses are lined with a mucosa. Each paranasal
sinus is named for its associated bone: frontal sinus, maxillary sinus,
sphenoidal sinus, and ethmoidal sinus. The sinuses produce mucus and lighten
the weight of the skull.
The nares and anterior portion of the nasal cavities are lined with
mucous membranes, containing sebaceous glands and hair follicles that serve
to prevent the passage of large debris, such as dirt, through the nasal cavity.
An olfactory epithelium used to detect odors is found deeper in the nasal cavity.
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2. PHARYNX
The pharynx is a tube formed by skeletal muscle and lined by mucous

membrane that is continuous with that of the nasal cavities (see Figure 4 – 1).
The pharynx is divided into three major regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx,
and the laryngopharynx (Figure 4 – 2).
Figure 4 – 2. Divisions of the Pharynx.
The nasopharynx is flanked by the conchae of the nasal cavity, and it

serves only as an airway. At the top of the nasopharynx are the pharyngeal
tonsils. A pharyngeal tonsil, also called an adenoid, is an aggregate of lymphoid
reticular tissue similar to a lymph node that lies at the superior portion of the
nasopharynx. The function of the pharyngeal tonsil is not well understood, but it
contains a rich supply of lymphocytes and is covered with ciliated epithelium that
traps and destroys invading pathogens that enter during inhalation. The
pharyngeal tonsils are large in children, but interestingly, tend to regress with age
and may even disappear. The uvula is a small bulbous, teardrop-shaped structure
located at the apex of the soft palate. Both the uvula and soft palate move like a
pendulum during swallowing, swinging upward to close off the nasopharynx to
prevent ingested materials from entering the nasal cavity. In addition, auditory
(Eustachian) tubes that connect to each middle ear cavity open into the
nasopharynx. This connection is why colds often lead to ear infections.
The oropharynx is a passageway for both air and food. The oropharynx
is bordered superiorly by the nasopharynx and anteriorly by the oral cavity.
The fauces is the opening at the connection between the oral cavity and the
oropharynx. As the nasopharynx becomes the oropharynx, the epithelium
changes from pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium to stratified
squamous epithelium. The oropharynx contains two distinct sets of tonsils, the
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palatine and lingual tonsils. A palatine tonsil is one of a pair of structures located
laterally in the oropharynx in the area of the fauces. The lingual tonsil is located
at the base of the tongue. Similar to the pharyngeal tonsil, the palatine and lingual
tonsils are composed of lymphoid tissue, and trap and destroy pathogens
entering the body through the oral or nasal cavities.
The laryngopharynx is inferior to the oropharynx and posterior to the

larynx. It continues the route for ingested material and air until its inferior end,
where the digestive and respiratory systems diverge. The stratified squamous
epithelium of the oropharynx is continuous with the laryngopharynx. Anteriorly,
the laryngopharynx opens into the larynx, whereas posteriorly, it enters the
esophagus.
3. LARYNX
The larynx is a cartilaginous structure inferior to the laryngopharynx that

connects the pharynx to the trachea and helps regulate the volume of air that
enters and leaves the lungs (Figure 4 – 3). The structure of the larynx is formed
by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces—the thyroid cartilage
(anterior), epiglottis (superior), and cricoid cartilage (inferior)—form the major
structure of the larynx. The thyroid cartilage is the largest piece of cartilage that
makes up the larynx. The thyroid cartilage consists of the laryngeal prominence,
or “Adam’s apple,” which tends to be more prominent in males. The thick cricoid
cartilage forms a ring, with a wide posterior region and a thinner anterior region.
Three smaller, paired cartilages—the arytenoids, corniculates, and cuneiforms—
attach to the epiglottis and the vocal cords and muscle that help move the vocal
cords to produce speech.
Figure 4 – 3. Larynx.
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4. TRACHEA
The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx toward the lungs (Figure
4 – 4). The trachea is formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue. The trachealis
muscle and elastic connective tissue together form the fibroelastic
membrane, a flexible membrane that closes the posterior surface of the
trachea, connecting the C-shaped cartilages.
The fibroelastic membrane allows the trachea to stretch and expand

slightly during inhalation and exhalation, whereas the rings of cartilage provide
structural support and prevent the trachea from collapsing. In addition, the
trachealis muscle can be contracted to force air through the trachea during
exhalation. The trachea is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium, which is continuous with the larynx. The esophagus borders the
trachea posteriorly.
Figure 4 – 4. Trachea. (a) The tracheal tube is formed by stacked, C-

shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage. (b) The layer visible in this cross-section of
tracheal wall tissue between the hyaline cartilage and the lumen of the
trachea is the mucosa, which is composed of pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium that contains goblet cells.
5. BRONCHIAL TREE
The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi at the
carina. These bronchi are also lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium containing mucus-producing goblet cells (Figure 4 – 4b). The carina
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is a raised structure that contains specialized nervous tissue that induces

violent coughing if a foreign body, such as food, is present. Rings of cartilage,
similar to those of the trachea, support the structure of the bronchi and prevent
their collapse. The primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum, a concave
region where blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves also enter the lungs.
The bronchi continue to branch into bronchial a tree. A bronchial tree (or
respiratory tree) is the collective term used for these multiple-branched bronchi.
The main function of the bronchi, like other conducting zone structures, is to
provide a passageway for air to move into and out of each lung. In addition, the
mucous membrane traps debris and pathogens.
A bronchiole branches from the tertiary bronchi. Bronchioles, which are

about 1 mm in diameter, further branch until they become the tiny terminal
bronchioles, which lead to the structures of gas exchange. There are more than
1000 terminal bronchioles in each lung. The muscular walls of the bronchioles
do not contain cartilage like those of the bronchi. This muscular wall can change
the size of the tubing to increase or decrease airflow through the tube.
RESPIRATORY ZONE
In contrast to the conducting zone, the respiratory zone includes structures that
are directly involved in gas exchange. The respiratory zone begins where the terminal
bronchioles join a respiratory bronchiole, the smallest type of bronchiole (Figure 4 –
5), which then leads to an alveolar duct, opening into a cluster of alveoli.
Figure 4 – 5. Respiratory Zone. Bronchioles lead to alveolar sacs in the respiratory

zone, where gas exchange occurs.
1. ALVEOLI
An alveolar duct is a tube composed of smooth muscle and connective

tissue, which opens into a cluster of alveoli. An alveolus is one of the many
small, grape-like sacs that are attached to the alveolar ducts.
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An alveolar sac is a cluster of many individual alveoli that are

responsible for gas exchange. An alveolus is approximately 200 μm in diameter
with elastic walls that allow the alveolus to stretch during air intake, which
greatly increases the surface area available for gas exchange. Alveoli are
connected to their neighbors by alveolar pores, which help maintain equal air
pressure throughout the alveoli and lung (Figure 4 – 6).
Figure 4 – 6. Structures of the Respiratory Zone. (a) The alveolus is

responsible for gas exchange. (b) A micrograph shows the alveolar structures
within lung tissue.
The alveolar wall consists of three major cell types: type I alveolar cells,
type II alveolar cells, and alveolar macrophages. A type I alveolar cell is a
squamous epithelial cell of the alveoli, which constitute up to 97 percent of the
alveolar surface area. These cells are about 25 nm thick and are highly
permeable to gases. A type II alveolar cell is interspersed among the type I
cells and secretes pulmonary surfactant, a substance composed of
phospholipids and proteins that reduces the surface tension of the alveoli.
Roaming around the alveolar wall is the alveolar macrophage, a phagocytic
cell of the immune system that removes debris and pathogens that have
reached the alveoli.
The simple squamous epithelium formed by type I alveolar cells is

attached to a thin, elastic basement membrane. This epithelium is extremely
thin and borders the endothelial membrane of capillaries. Taken together, the
alveoli and capillary membranes form a respiratory membrane that is
approximately 0.5 mm thick. The respiratory membrane allows gases to cross
by simple diffusion, allowing oxygen to be picked up by the blood for transport
and CO2 to be released into the air of the alveoli.
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THE LUNGS
The lungs are two fairly large, cone-shaped organs filling up the two lateral
chambers of the thoracic cavity. The lung tissue is porous and spongy, due to the
alveoli and the large amount of air it contains the alveoli is about 0.2mm across. The
walls of the alveoli are very thin so oxygen and carbon dioxide can easily pass through.
There are 300 million estimated numbers of alveoli in the lungs.
The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea
by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the
diaphragm. The diaphragm is the flat, dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the
lungs and thoracic cavity. The lungs are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached
to the mediastinum.
The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the left lung occupies
a smaller volume than the right. The cardiac notch is an indentation on the surface
of the left lung, and it allows space for the heart (Figure 4 – 7). The apex of the lung is
the superior region, whereas the base is the opposite region near the diaphragm. The
costal surface of the lung borders the ribs. The mediastinal surface faces the midline.
Figure 4 – 7. Gross Anatomy of the Lungs.
Each lung is composed of smaller units called lobes. Fissures separate these
lobes from each other. The right lung consists of three lobes: the superior, middle, and
inferior lobes. The left lung consists of two lobes: the superior and inferior lobes. A
bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lobe, and each lobe houses multiple
bronchopulmonary segments. Each segment receives air from its own tertiary
bronchus and is supplied with blood by its own artery. Some diseases of the lungs
typically affect one or more bronchopulmonary segments, and in some cases, the
diseased segments can be surgically removed with little influence on neighboring
segments. A pulmonary lobule is a subdivision formed as the bronchi branch into
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bronchioles. Each lobule receives its own large bronchiole that has multiple branches.
An interlobular septum is a wall, composed of connective tissue, which separates
lobules from one another.
BREATHING PROCESS
Most of the breathing in the lungs is cause by the contraction of a sheet of

muscle called diaphragm. This curved muscle sheet separates the content of the chest
from the abdomen. When you inhale the ribs are lifted upward outward, the diaphragm
contracts and flatten, the size of chest increase which causes the pressure of the lungs
to drop, so air rushes in. When you exhale the ribs move down the diaphragm relaxes,
it becomes curved again and forces the air out of the lungs.
The breathing process becomes faster and deeper when you exercise in order
to get more oxygen. This helps break down the sugar and provide more energy for
the muscles to work. Normally you only breathe out about 10% of the air in your lungs.
But when you are panting very hard or running you may use about 60% of the air. Yet
20% will always be permanently trapped in the alveoli.
It is harder to breathe at high altitude because the air is thinner so there is less
oxygen in it. While under water the pressure of the water would prevent the lungs from
expanding enough to draw the air in. Most healthy people can hold their breath for
about 60 to 90 seconds but it soon becomes very uncomfortable. Because breathing
is a normal process, we never think about it. If you try to hold your breath you can
override this process only for a while but the brain will not let carbon dioxide build up
too much and will soon force you to breath.
PATHWAYS OF RESPIRATION
When you breathe you draw air into the nose and into the lungs. Air travels
down from the nose to the pharynx, the larynx, down to the trachea or the wind pipes
those branches out to bronchial tube to smaller branches the bronchi, the bronchioles
to the air sacs called alveoli. The oxygen is absorbed through the thin walls of the
alveoli and releases carbon dioxide to be breathed out as waste product.
Rice University (N.D.) 146. 22. 2. The Lungs. Retrieved from

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-2-the-lungs/
Rice University (N.D.) 146. 22. 1. Organs and Structures of the Respiratory system. Retrieved
from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-1-organs-and-
structures-of-the-respiratory-system/
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Let’s Check
Activity 25. Read carefully each question and choose the letter of your best
answer on the space provided before each number.
1. Which of the following anatomical structures is not part of the conducting zone?
A. pharynx
B. nasal cavity
C. alveoli
D. bronchi
2. What is the function of the conchae in the nasal cavity?
A. increase surface area

B. exchange gases
C. maintain surface tension
D. maintain air pressure
3. The fauces connects which of the following structures to the oropharynx?
A. nasopharynx
B. laryngopharynx
C. nasal cavity
D. oral cavity
4. Which of the following are structural features of the trachea?
A. C-shaped cartilage
B. smooth muscle fibers
C. cilia
D. all of the above
5. Which of the following structures is not part of the bronchial tree?
A. alveoli
B. bronchi
C. terminal bronchioles
D. respiratory bronchioles
6. What is the role of alveolar macrophages?
A. to secrete pulmonary surfactant

B. to secrete antimicrobial proteins
C. to remove pathogens and debris
D. to facilitate gas exchange
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7. Which of the following structures separates the lung into lobes?
A. mediastinum
B. fissure
C. root
D. pleura
8. A section of the lung that receives its own tertiary bronchus is called the
________.
A. bronchopulmonary segment
B. pulmonary lobule
C. interpulmonary segment
D. respiratory segment
9. The ________ circulation picks up oxygen for cellular use and drops off carbon
dioxide for removal from the body.
A. pulmonary
B. interlobular
C. respiratory
D. bronchial
10. The pleura that surrounds the lungs consists of two layers, the ________.
A. visceral and parietal pleurae.

B. mediastinum and parietal pleurae.
C. visceral and mediastinum pleurae.
D. none of the above
Let’s Analyze
Activity 26. Breathing Exercise: Normal breathing ranges from 12 – 25 times

per minute. In this activity, you will compare your breathing rate at rest to breathing
rate after exercise. When counting breath, in and out is 1.
Procedure:
1. Sit quietly and breathe for one minute. While you are doing this, count the
number of breaths (in and out is 1) you take. Record this number in the date
table.
2. Run in place for 30 seconds. Then sit down and again count the number of
breaths you take for one minute. Record this number in the date table.
3. Run in place for one minute. Then sit down and again count the number of
breaths you take for one minute. Record this number in the date table.
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Observations:
Activity Rate
Resting
After 30s of exercise
After one minute of exercise
Analysis:
1. How did exercise affect your breathing rate?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What other factors besides exercise might influence you normal breathing
rate?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Did you notice any other way your breathing changed with exercise? Give
possible reason for this change.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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In a Nutshell
Activity 27. Finally for this activity, you are going to demonstrate your deep
knowledge about the structures and functions of the respiratory system. Explain the
following questions below.
1. Describe the three regions of the pharynx and their functions.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Compare and contrast the conducting and respiratory zones.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Compare and contrast the right and left lungs.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture
Week 10-12: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Examine and analyze the basic structure and functions of the

Integumentary System and Reproductive System;
b. Examine and analyze the basic structure and functions of Digestive
System and Excretory System and;
c. Examine and analyze the structure and functions of Lymphatic
System and Endocrine System.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Examine and analyze the basic structure
and functions of the Integumentary system and Reproductive system.
Metalanguage
For this unit, there are six body systems that made up the human body. These
systems work together physiologically. In this specific first objective, there two body
systems that are distinct but interrelated because they are responsible for the
protection, body heat regulation and producing offspring or organism. Below are the
two body system that will be tackled in this specific objective:
• INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM – includes the skin and its various accessory

organs such as the nails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. This
system protects the underlying tissues, help regulate body temperature, house
variety of sensory receptors and synthesize certain products.
• REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM – Is the process of producing offspring. Cell

reproduces when they divide and give rise to new cells. The reproduction of an
organism produces a whole new organism like itself. This consists of the
female organs vagina, uterus, ovary, egg and egg tube. The male organs
include the penis, testes and bladder.
Essential Knowledge
The integumentary system refers to the skin and its accessory structures, and
it is responsible for much more than simply lending to your outward appearance. In
the adult human body, the skin makes up about 16 percent of body weight and covers
an area of 1.5 to 2 m2. In fact, the skin and accessory structures are the largest organ
system in the human body. As such, the skin protects your inner organs and it is in
need of daily care and protection to maintain its health. This part will introduce the
structure and functions of the integumentary system, as well as some of the diseases,
disorders, and injuries that can affect this system.
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1. LAYERS OF THE SKIN
Although you may not typically think of the skin as an organ, it is in fact made
of tissues that work together as a single structure to perform unique and critical
functions. The skin and its accessory structures make up the integumentary
system, which provides the body with overall protection. The skin is made of
multiple layers of cells and tissues, which are held to underlying structures by
connective tissue (Figure 4 – 8). The deeper layer of skin is well vascularized (has
numerous blood vessels). It also has numerous sensory, and autonomic and
sympathetic nerve fibers ensuring communication to and from the brain.
Figure 4 – 8. Layers of Skin.
The skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis, made of closely
packed epithelial cells, and the dermis, made of dense, irregular connective
tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other
structures. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, which is composed mainly
of loose connective and fatty tissues (Figure 4 – 8).
• EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous
epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its
location in the body. It does not have any blood vessels within it (i.e., it is
avascular). Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as “thin skin.” From
deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum.
Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin. “Thick skin” is found only
on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a fifth layer, called
the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the stratum
granulosum (Figure 4 – 9).
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Figure 4 – 9. Anatomy of Epidermis.
• DERMIS
The dermis might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system

(derma- = “skin”), as distinct from the epidermis (epi- = “upon” or “over”) and
hypodermis (hypo- = “below”). It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and
other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of
two layers of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin
and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts (Figure 4 – 8).
• HYPOSDERMIS
The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer or superficial

fascia) is a layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the
underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a
part of the skin, although the border between the hypodermis and dermis can
be difficult to distinguish.
The hypodermis consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar connective

tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and
provides insulation and cushioning for the integument (Figure 4 – 8).
2. ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
• HAIR
Is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made

of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration
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of the dermis called the hair follicle. The hair shaft is the part of the hair not
anchored to the follicle, and much of this is exposed at the skin’s surface. The
rest of the hair, which is anchored in the follicle, lies below the surface of the
skin and is referred to as the hair root. The hair root ends deep in the dermis
at the hair bulb, and includes a layer of mitotically active basal cells called
the hair matrix. The hair bulb surrounds the hair papilla, which is made of
connective tissue and contains blood capillaries and nerve endings from the
dermis (Figure 4 – 10).
Figure 4 – 10. Hair and Hair follicles originate in the epidermis and
have many parts.
• NAILS
The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at

the tips of our fingers and toes. The nail body is formed on the nail bed, and
protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and
the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress (Figure
5 – 1). In addition, the nail body forms a back-support for picking up small
objects with the fingers. The nail body is composed of densely packed dead
keratinocytes. The epidermis in this part of the body has evolved a specialized
structure upon which nails can form. The nail body forms at the nail root, which
has a matrix of proliferating cells from the stratum basale that enables the nail
to grow continuously.
The lateral nail fold overlaps the nail on the sides, helping to anchor the
nail body. The nail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body forms
the nail cuticle, also called the eponychium. The nail bed is rich in blood
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vessels, making it appear pink, except at the base, where a thick layer of
epithelium over the nail matrix forms a crescent-shaped region called
the lunula (the “little moon”). The area beneath the free edge of the nail,
furthest from the cuticle, is called the hyponychium. It consists of a thickened
layer of stratum corneum.
Figure 5 – 1. The structure of the Nail.
• SWEAT GLANDS
When the body becomes warm, sudoriferous glands produce sweat to

cool the body. Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis
and are classified as merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by
exocytosis through a duct without affecting the cells of the gland. There are two
types of sweat glands, each secreting slightly different products.
An eccrine sweat gland is type of gland that produces a hypotonic

sweat for thermoregulation. These glands are found all over the skin’s surface,
but are especially abundant on the palms of the hand, the soles of the feet, and
the forehead (Figure 5 – 2). They are coiled glands lying deep in the dermis,
with the duct rising up to a pore on the skin surface, where the sweat is
released. This type of sweat, released by exocytosis, is hypotonic and
composed mostly of water, with some salt, antibodies, traces of metabolic
waste, and dermicidin, an antimicrobial peptide. Eccrine glands are a primary
component of thermoregulation in humans and thus help to maintain
homeostasis. Eccrine glands are coiled glands in the dermis that release sweat
that is mostly water.
An apocrine sweat gland is usually associated with hair follicles in

densely hairy areas, such as armpits and genital regions. Apocrine sweat
glands are larger than eccrine sweat glands and lie deeper in the dermis,
sometimes even reaching the hypodermis, with the duct normally emptying into
the hair follicle. In addition to water and salts, apocrine sweat includes organic
compounds that make the sweat thicker and subject to bacterial decomposition
and subsequent smell. The release of this sweat is under both nervous and
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hormonal control, and plays a role in the poorly understood human pheromone
response. Most commercial antiperspirants use an aluminum-based compound
as their primary active ingredient to stop sweat. When the antiperspirant enters
the sweat gland duct, the aluminum-based compounds precipitate due to a
change in pH and form a physical block in the duct, which prevents sweat from
coming out of the pore.
Figure 5 – 2 . Eccrine Gland.
• SEBACEOUS GLANDS
A sebaceous gland is a type of oil gland that is found all over the body
and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. Most sebaceous glands
are associated with hair follicles. They generate and excrete sebum, a mixture
of lipids, onto the skin surface, thereby naturally lubricating the dry and dead
layer of keratinized cells of the stratum corneum, keeping it pliable. The fatty
acids of sebum also have antibacterial properties, and prevent water loss from
the skin in low-humidity environments. The secretion of sebum is stimulated by
hormones, many of which do not become active until puberty. Thus, sebaceous
glands are relatively inactive during childhood. See Figure 4 – 8 and Figure 4 –
10.
3. FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• PROTECTION
The skin protects the rest of the body from the basic elements of nature
such as wind, water, and UV sunlight. It acts as a protective barrier against
water loss, due to the presence of layers of keratin and glycolipids in the stratum
corneum. It also is the first line of defense against abrasive activity due to
contact with grit, microbes, or harmful chemicals. Sweat excreted from sweat
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glands deters microbes from over-colonizing the skin surface by generating

dermicidin, which has antibiotic properties.
• SENSORY FUNCTION
The fact that you can feel an ant crawling on your skin, allowing you to
flick it off before it bites, is because the skin, and especially the hairs projecting
from hair follicles in the skin, can sense changes in the environment. The hair
root plexus surrounding the base of the hair follicle senses a disturbance, and
then transmits the information to the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord), which can then respond by activating the skeletal muscles of your eyes
to see the ant and the skeletal muscles of the body to act against the ant.
The skin acts as a sense organ because the epidermis, dermis, and the
hypodermis contain specialized sensory nerve structures that detect touch,
surface temperature, and pain. These receptors are more concentrated on the
tips of the fingers, which are most sensitive to touch, especially the Meissner
corpuscle (tactile corpuscle) which responds to light touch, and the Pacinian
corpuscle (lamellated corpuscle), which responds to vibration. Merkel cells,
seen scattered in the stratum basale, are also touch receptors. In addition to
these specialized receptors, there are sensory nerves connected to each hair
follicle, pain and temperature receptors scattered throughout the skin, and
motor nerves innervate the arrector pili muscles and glands. This rich
innervation helps us sense our environment and react accordingly.
• THERMOREGULATION
The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature through its

tight association with the sympathetic nervous system, the division of the
nervous system involved in our fight-or-flight responses. The sympathetic
nervous system is continuously monitoring body temperature and initiating
appropriate motor responses. Recall that sweat glands, accessory structures
to the skin, secrete water, salt, and other substances to cool the body when it
becomes warm. Even when the body does not appear to be noticeably
sweating, approximately 500 mL of sweat (insensible perspiration) are secreted
a day. If the body becomes excessively warm due to high temperatures,
vigorous activity, or a combination of the two, sweat glands will be stimulated
by the sympathetic nervous system to produce large amounts of sweat, as
much as 0.7 to 1.5 L per hour for an active person. When the sweat evaporates
from the skin surface, the body is cooled as body heat is dissipated.
In addition to sweating, arterioles in the dermis dilate so that excess heat

carried by the blood can dissipate through the skin and into the surrounding
environment. This accounts for the skin redness that many people experience
when exercising. When body temperatures drop, the arterioles constrict to
minimize heat loss, particularly in the ends of the digits and tip of the nose. This
reduced circulation can result in the skin taking on a whitish hue. Although the
temperature of the skin drops as a result, passive heat loss is prevented, and
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internal organs and structures remain warm. If the temperature of the skin drops
too much (such as environmental temperatures below freezing), the
conservation of body core heat can result in the skin actually freezing, a
condition called frostbite.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Unique for its role in human reproduction, a gamete is a specialized sex cell
carrying 23 chromosomes—one half the number in body cells. At fertilization, the
chromosomes in one male gamete, called a sperm (or spermatozoon), combine
with the chromosomes in one female gamete, called an oocyte. The function of the
male reproductive system (Figure 5 – 3.) is to produce sperm and transfer them to
the female reproductive tract. The paired testes are a crucial component in this
process, as they produce both sperm and androgens, the hormones that support
male reproductive physiology. In humans, the most important male androgen is
testosterone. Several accessory organs and ducts aid the process of sperm
maturation and transport the sperm and other seminal components to the penis,
which delivers sperm to the female reproductive tract. In this section, we examine
each of these different structures, and discuss the process of sperm production
and transport.
Figure 5 – 3. Male Reproductive System.
The structures of the male reproductive system include the testes, the
epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen.
Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the
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spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to
create semen.
• SCROTUM
The testes are located in a skin-covered, highly pigmented, muscular
sack called the scrotum that extends from the body behind the penis
(see Figure 5 – 3). This location is important in sperm production, which
occurs within the testes, and proceeds more efficiently when the testes are
kept 2 to 4°C below core body temperature.
The dartos muscle makes up the subcutaneous muscle layer of the
scrotum (Figure 5 – 4). It continues internally to make up the scrotal septum, a
wall that divides the scrotum into two compartments, each housing one testis.
Descending from the internal oblique muscle of the abdominal wall are the
two cremaster muscles, which cover each testis like a muscular net. By
contracting simultaneously, the dartos and cremaster muscles can elevate the
testes in cold weather (or water), moving the testes closer to the body and
decreasing the surface area of the scrotum to retain heat. Alternatively, as the
environmental temperature increases, the scrotum relaxes, moving the testes
farther from the body core and increasing scrotal surface area, which
promotes heat loss. Externally, the scrotum has a raised medial thickening on
the surface called the raphae.
Figure 5 – 4. The Scrotum and Testes.
• TESTES
The testes (singular = testis) are the male gonads—that is, the male
reproductive organs. They produce both sperm and androgens, such as
testosterone, and are active throughout the reproductive lifespan of the male.
Paired ovals, the testes are each approximately 4 to 5 cm in length and

are housed within the scrotum (see Figure 5 – 4). They are surrounded by two
distinct layers of protective connective tissue (Figure 5 – 5). The outer tunica
vaginalis is a serous membrane that has both a parietal and a thin visceral
layer. Beneath the tunica vaginalis is the tunica albuginea, a tough, white,
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dense connective tissue layer covering the testis itself. Not only does the tunica
albuginea cover the outside of the testis, it also invaginates to form septa that
divide the testis into 300 to 400 structures called lobules. Within the lobules,
sperm develop in structures called seminiferous tubules. During the seventh
month of the developmental period of a male fetus, each testis moves through
the abdominal musculature to descend into the scrotal cavity. This is called the
“descent of the testis.” Cryptorchidism is the clinical term used when one or
both of the testes fail to descend into the scrotum prior to birth.
Figure 5 – 5. Anatomy of Testis.
This sagittal view shows the seminiferous tubules, the site of sperm
production. Formed sperm are transferred to the epididymis, where they mature.
They leave the epididymis during an ejaculation via the ductus deferens.
• SPERMATOGENESIS
As just noted, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules
that form the bulk of each testis (see Figure 5 – 5). The process begins at
puberty, after which time sperm are produced constantly throughout a
man’s life. One production cycle, from spermatogonia through formed
sperm, takes approximately 64 days. A new cycle starts approximately
every 16 days, although this timing is not synchronous across the
seminiferous tubules. Sperm counts—the total number of sperm a man
produces—slowly decline after age 35, and some studies suggest that
smoking can lower sperm counts irrespective of age.
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The process of spermatogenesis begins with mitosis of the diploid

spermatogonia (Figure 5 – 6). Because these cells are diploid (2n), they each
have a complete copy of the father’s genetic material, or 46 chromosomes.
However, mature gametes are haploid (1n), containing 23 chromosomes—
meaning that daughter cells of spermatogonia must undergo a second cellular
division through the process of meiosis.
Figure 5 – 6. Spermatogenesis.
• STRUCTURE OF FORMED SPERM
Sperm are smaller than most cells in the body; in fact, the volume of a
sperm cell is 85,000 times less than that of the female gamete. Approximately
100 to 300 million sperm are produced each day, whereas women typically
ovulate only one oocyte per month as is true for most cells in the body, the
structure of sperm cells speaks to their function. Sperm have a distinctive head,
mid-piece, and tail region (Figure 5 – 7). The head of the sperm contains the
extremely compact haploid nucleus with very little cytoplasm. These qualities
contribute to the overall small size of the sperm (the head is only 5 μm long).
A structure called the acrosome covers most of the head of the sperm
cell as a “cap” that is filled with lysosomal enzymes important for preparing
sperm to participate in fertilization. Tightly packed mitochondria fill the mid-
piece of the sperm. ATP produced by these mitochondria will power the
flagellum, which extends from the neck and the mid-piece through the tail of the
sperm, enabling it to move the entire sperm cell. The central strand of the
flagellum, the axial filament, is formed from one centriole inside the maturing
sperm cell during the final stages of spermatogenesis.
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Figure 5 – 7. Structure of Sperm. Sperm cells are divided into a head, containing
DNA; a mid-piece, containing mitochondria; and a tail, providing motility. The
acrosome is oval and somewhat flattened.
• SPERM TRANSPORT
To fertilize an egg, sperm must be moved from the seminiferous tubules

in the testes, through the epididymis, and—later during ejaculation—along the
length of the penis and out into the female reproductive tract.
• ROLE OF THE EPIDIDYMIS
From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, the immotile sperm are
surrounded by testicular fluid and moved to the epididymis (plural =
epididymides), a coiled tube attached to the testis where newly formed sperm
continue to mature (see Figure 5 – 5). Though the epididymis does not take up
much room in its tightly coiled state, it would be approximately 6 m (20 feet)
long if straightened. It takes an average of 12 days for sperm to move through
the coils of the epididymis, with the shortest recorded transit time in humans
being one day.
Sperm enter the head of the epididymis and are moved along
predominantly by the contraction of smooth muscles lining the epididymal
tubes. As they are moved along the length of the epididymis, the sperm further
mature and acquire the ability to move under their own power. Once inside the
female reproductive tract, they will use this ability to move independently toward
the unfertilized egg. The more mature sperm are then stored in the tail of the
epididymis (the final section) until ejaculation occurs.
• DUCT SYSTEM
During ejaculation, sperm exit the tail of the epididymis and are pushed
by smooth muscle contraction to the ductus deferens (also called the vas
deferens). The ductus deferens is a thick, muscular tube that is bundled
together inside the scrotum with connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
into a structure called the spermatic cord (see Figure 5 – 3 and Figure 5 – 4).
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Because the ductus deferens is physically accessible within the scrotum,

surgical sterilization to interrupt sperm delivery can be performed by cutting and
sealing a small section of the ductus (vas) deferens. This procedure is called a
vasectomy, and it is an effective form of male birth control. Although it may be
possible to reverse a vasectomy, clinicians consider the procedure permanent,
and advise men to undergo it only if they are certain they no longer wish to
father children.
• SEMINAL VESICLES
As sperm pass through the ampulla of the ductus deferens at ejaculation,

they mix with fluid from the associated seminal vesicle (see Figure 5 – 3). The
paired seminal vesicles are glands that contribute approximately 60 percent of
the semen volume. Seminal vesicle fluid contains large amounts of fructose,
which is used by the sperm mitochondria to generate ATP to allow movement
through the female reproductive tract.
The fluid, now containing both sperm and seminal vesicle secretions,
next moves into the associated ejaculatory duct, a short structure formed from
the ampulla of the ductus deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle. The
paired ejaculatory ducts transport the seminal fluid into the next structure, the
prostate gland.
• PROSTATE GLAND
As shown in Figure 5 – 3, the centrally located prostate gland sits

anterior to the rectum at the base of the bladder surrounding the prostatic
urethra (the portion of the urethra that runs within the prostate). About the size
of a walnut, the prostate is formed of both muscular and glandular tissues. It
excretes an alkaline, milky fluid to the passing seminal fluid—now called
semen—that is critical to first coagulate and then decoagulate the semen
following ejaculation. The temporary thickening of semen helps retain it within
the female reproductive tract, providing time for sperm to utilize the fructose
provided by seminal vesicle secretions. When the semen regains its fluid state,
sperm can then pass farther into the female reproductive tract.
• THE PENIS
The penis is the male organ of copulation (sexual intercourse). It is

flaccid for non-sexual actions, such as urination, and turgid and rod-like with
sexual arousal. When erect, the stiffness of the organ allows it to penetrate into
the vagina and deposit semen into the female reproductive tract.
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Figure 5 – 8. Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Penis. Three columns of erectile

tissue make up most of the volume of the penis.
The shaft of the penis surrounds the urethra (Figure 5 – 8). The shaft is
composed of three column-like chambers of erectile tissue that span the length
of the shaft. Each of the two larger lateral chambers is called a corpus
cavernosum (plural = corpora cavernosa). Together, these make up the bulk
of the penis. The corpus spongiosum, which can be felt as a raised ridge on
the erect penis, is a smaller chamber that surrounds the spongy, or penile,
urethra. The end of the penis, called the glans penis, has a high concentration
of nerve endings, resulting in very sensitive skin that influences the likelihood
of ejaculation (see Figure 5 – 3). The skin from the shaft extends down over the
glans and forms a collar called the prepuce (or foreskin). The foreskin also
contains a dense concentration of nerve endings, and both lubricate and protect
the sensitive skin of the glans penis. A surgical procedure called circumcision,
often performed for religious or social reasons, removes the prepuce, typically
within days of birth.
Both sexual arousal and REM sleep (during which dreaming occurs) can
induce an erection. Penile erections are the result of vasocongestion, or
engorgement of the tissues because of more arterial blood flowing into the
penis than is leaving in the veins. During sexual arousal, nitric oxide (NO) is
released from nerve endings near blood vessels within the corpora cavernosa
and spongiosum. Release of NO activates a signaling pathway that results in
relaxation of the smooth muscles that surround the penile arteries, causing
them to dilate. This dilation increases the amount of blood that can enter the
penis and induces the endothelial cells in the penile arterial walls to also secrete
NO and perpetuate the vasodilation. The rapid increase in blood volume fills
the erectile chambers, and the increased pressure of the filled chambers
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compresses the thin-walled penile venules, preventing venous drainage of the

penis. The result of this increased blood flow to the penis and reduced blood
return from the penis is erection. Depending on the flaccid dimensions of a
penis, it can increase in size slightly or greatly during erection, with the average
length of an erect penis measuring approximately 15 cm.
• TESTOSTERONE
Testosterone, an androgen, is a steroid hormone produced by Leydig

cells. The alternate term for Leydig cells, interstitial cells, reflects their location
between the seminiferous tubules in the testes. In male embryos, testosterone
is secreted by Leydig cells by the seventh week of development, with peak
concentrations reached in the second trimester. This early release of
testosterone results in the anatomical differentiation of the male sexual organs.
In childhood, testosterone concentrations are low. They increase during
puberty, activating characteristic physical changes and initiating
spermatogenesis.
• FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
The continued presence of testosterone is necessary to keep the male

reproductive system working properly, and Leydig cells produce approximately
6 to 7 mg of testosterone per day. Testicular steroidogenesis (the manufacture
of androgens, including testosterone) results in testosterone concentrations
that are 100 times higher in the testes than in the circulation. Maintaining these
normal concentrations of testosterone promotes spermatogenesis, whereas
low levels of testosterone can lead to infertility.
In addition to intratesticular secretion, testosterone is also released into

the systemic circulation and plays an important role in muscle development,
bone growth, the development of secondary sex characteristics, and
maintaining libido (sex drive) in both males and females. In females, the ovaries
secrete small amounts of testosterone, although most is converted to estradiol.
A small amount of testosterone is also secreted by the adrenal glands in both
sexes.
2. THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system functions to produce gametes and

reproductive hormones, just like the male reproductive system; however, it also
has the additional task of supporting the developing fetus and delivering it to the
outside world. Unlike its male counterpart, the female reproductive system is
located primarily inside the pelvic cavity (Figure 5 – 9). Recall that the ovaries are
the female gonads. The gamete they produce is called an oocyte. We’ll discuss
the production of oocytes in detail shortly. First, let’s look at some of the structures
of the female reproductive system.
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Figure 5 – 9. Female Reproductive System. The major organs of the female

reproductive system are located inside the pelvic cavity.
• EXTERNAL FEMALE GENITALS
The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively

as the vulva (Figure 5 – 10). The mons pubis is a pad of fat that is located at
the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic
hair. The labia majora (labia = “lips”; majora = “larger”) are folds of hair-
covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis. The thinner and more
pigmented labia minora (labia = “lips”; minora = “smaller”) extend medial to the
labia majora. Although they naturally vary in shape and size from woman to
woman, the labia minora serve to protect the female urethra and the entrance
to the female reproductive tract.
The superior, anterior portions of the labia minora come together to

encircle the clitoris (or glans clitoris), an organ that originates from the same
cells as the glans penis and has abundant nerves that make it important in
sexual sensation and orgasm. The hymen is a thin membrane that sometimes
partially covers the entrance to the vagina. An intact hymen cannot be used as
an indication of “virginity”; even at birth, this is only a partial membrane, as
menstrual fluid and other secretions must be able to exit the body, regardless
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of penile–vaginal intercourse. The vaginal opening is located between the

opening of the urethra and the anus. It is flanked by outlets to the Bartholin’s
glands (or greater vestibular glands).
Figure 5 – 10. The Vulva. The external female genitalia are referred to
collectively as the vulva.
• VAGINA
The vagina, shown at the bottom of Figure 5 – 9, is a muscular canal

(approximately 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to the reproductive
tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during menses and childbirth.
The outer walls of the anterior and posterior vagina are formed into longitudinal
columns, or ridges, and the superior portion of the vagina—called the fornix—
meets the protruding uterine cervix. The walls of the vagina are lined with an
outer, fibrous adventitia; a middle layer of smooth muscle; and an inner mucous
membrane with transverse folds called rugae. Together, the middle and inner
layers allow the expansion of the vagina to accommodate intercourse and
childbirth. The thin, perforated hymen can partially surround the opening to the
vaginal orifice. The hymen can be ruptured with strenuous physical exercise,
penile–vaginal intercourse, and childbirth. The Bartholin’s glands and the lesser
vestibular glands (located near the clitoris) secrete mucus, which keeps the
vestibular area moist.
The vagina is home to a normal population of microorganisms that help

to protect against infection by pathogenic bacteria, yeast, or other organisms
that can enter the vagina. In a healthy woman, the most predominant type of
vaginal bacteria is from the genus Lactobacillus. This family of beneficial
bacterial flora secretes lactic acid, and thus protects the vagina by maintaining
an acidic pH (below 4.5). Potential pathogens are less likely to survive in these
acidic conditions. Lactic acid, in combination with other vaginal secretions,
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makes the vagina a self-cleansing organ. However, douching—or washing out

the vagina with fluid—can disrupt the normal balance of healthy
microorganisms, and actually increase a woman’s risk for infections and
irritation. Indeed, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
recommend that women do not douche, and that they allow the vagina to
maintain its normal healthy population of protective microbial flora.
• OVARIES
The ovaries are the female gonads (see Figure 5 – 9). Paired ovals,
they are each about 2 to 3 cm in length, about the size of an almond. The
ovaries are located within the pelvic cavity, and are supported by the
mesovarium, an extension of the peritoneum that connects the ovaries to
the broad ligament. Extending from the mesovarium itself is the suspensory
ligament that contains the ovarian blood and lymph vessels. Finally, the ovary
itself is attached to the uterus via the ovarian ligament.
The ovary comprises an outer covering of cuboidal epithelium called the

ovarian surface epithelium that is superficial to a dense connective tissue
covering called the tunica albuginea. Beneath the tunica albuginea is the cortex,
or outer portion, of the organ. The cortex is composed of a tissue framework
called the ovarian stroma that forms the bulk of the adult ovary. Oocytes
develop within the outer layer of this stroma, each surrounded by supporting
cells. This grouping of an oocyte and its supporting cells is called a follicle. The
growth and development of ovarian follicles will be described shortly. Beneath
the cortex lies the inner ovarian medulla, the site of blood vessels, lymph
vessels, and the nerves of the ovary. You will learn more about the overall
anatomy of the female reproductive system at the end of this section.
• THE UTERINE TUBES
The uterine tubes (also called fallopian tubes or oviducts) serve as the
conduit of the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus (Figure 6 – 1). Each of the
two uterine tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary and divided
into sections. The isthmus is the narrow medial end of each uterine tube that
is connected to the uterus. The wide distal infundibulum flares out with
slender, finger-like projections called fimbriae. The middle region of the tube,
called the ampulla, is where fertilization often occurs. The uterine tubes also
have three layers: an outer serosa, a middle smooth muscle layer, and an inner
mucosal layer. In addition to its mucus-secreting cells, the inner mucosa
contains ciliated cells that beat in the direction of the uterus, producing a current
that will be critical to move the oocyte.
Following ovulation, the secondary oocyte surrounded by a few

granulosa cells is released into the peritoneal cavity. The nearby uterine tube,
either left or right, receives the oocyte. Unlike sperm, oocytes lack flagella, and
therefore cannot move on their own. So how do they travel into the uterine tube
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and toward the uterus? High concentrations of estrogen that occur around the
time of ovulation induce contractions of the smooth muscle along the length of
the uterine tube. These contractions occur every 4 to 8 seconds, and the result
is a coordinated movement that sweeps the surface of the ovary and the pelvic
cavity. Current flowing toward the uterus is generated by coordinated beating
of the cilia that line the outside and lumen of the length of the uterine tube.
These cilia beat more strongly in response to the high estrogen concentrations
that occur around the time of ovulation. As a result of these mechanisms, the
oocyte–granulosa cell complex is pulled into the interior of the tube. Once
inside, the muscular contractions and beating cilia move the oocyte slowly
toward the uterus. When fertilization does occur, sperm typically meet the egg
while it is still moving through the ampulla.
Figure 6 – 1. Ovaries, Uterine Tubes, and Uterus.
This anterior view shows the relationship of the ovaries, uterine tubes
(oviducts), and uterus. Sperm enter through the vagina, and fertilization of an
ovulated oocyte usually occurs in the distal uterine tube.
The open-ended structure of the uterine tubes can have significant

health consequences if bacteria or other contagions enter through the vagina
and move through the uterus, into the tubes, and then into the pelvic cavity. If
this is left unchecked, a bacterial infection (sepsis) could quickly become life-
threatening. The spread of an infection in this manner is of special concern
when unskilled practitioners perform abortions in non-sterile conditions. Sepsis
is also associated with sexually transmitted bacterial infections, especially
gonorrhea and chlamydia. These increase a woman’s risk for pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID), infection of the uterine tubes or other reproductive
organs. Even when resolved, PID can leave scar tissue in the tubes, leading to
infertility.
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• THE UTERUS AND CERVIX
The uterus is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the
growing embryo (see Figure 6 – 1). Its average size is approximately 5 cm wide
by 7 cm long (approximately 2 in by 3 in) when a female is not pregnant. It has
three sections. The portion of the uterus superior to the opening of the uterine
tubes is called the fundus. The middle section of the uterus is called the body
of uterus (or corpus). The cervix is the narrow inferior portion of the uterus
that projects into the vagina. The cervix produces mucus secretions that
become thin and stringy under the influence of high systemic plasma estrogen
concentrations, and these secretions can facilitate sperm movement through
the reproductive tract.
• THE BREASTS
Whereas the breasts are located far from the other female reproductive
organs, they are considered accessory organs of the female reproductive
system. The function of the breasts is to supply milk to an infant in a process
called lactation. The external features of the breast include a nipple surrounded
by a pigmented areola (Figure 6 – 2), whose coloration may deepen during
pregnancy. The areola is typically circular and can vary in size from 25 to 100
mm in diameter. The areolar region is characterized by small, raised areolar
glands that secrete lubricating fluid during lactation to protect the nipple from
chafing. When a baby nurses, or draws milk from the breast, the entire areolar
region is taken into the mouth.
Breast milk is produced by the mammary glands, which are modified

sweat glands. The milk itself exits the breast through the nipple via 15 to
20 lactiferous ducts that open on the surface of the nipple. These lactiferous
ducts each extend to a lactiferous sinus that connects to a glandular lobe
within the breast itself that contains groups of milk-secreting cells in clusters
called alveoli (see Figure 6 – 2). The clusters can change in size depending on
the amount of milk in the alveolar lumen. Once milk is made in the alveoli,
stimulated myoepithelial cells that surround the alveoli contract to push the milk
to the lactiferous sinuses. From here, the baby can draw milk through the
lactiferous ducts by suckling. The lobes themselves are surrounded by fat
tissue, which determines the size of the breast; breast size differs between
individuals and does not affect the amount of milk produced. Supporting the
breasts are multiple bands of connective tissue called suspensory
ligaments that connect the breast tissue to the dermis of the overlying skin.
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Figure 6 – 2. Anatomy of the Breast. During lactation, milk moves from the
alveoli through the lactiferous ducts to the nipple.
During the normal hormonal fluctuations in the menstrual cycle, breast

tissue responds to changing levels of estrogen and progesterone, which can
lead to swelling and breast tenderness in some individuals, especially during
the secretory phase. If pregnancy occurs, the increase in hormones leads to
further development of the mammary tissue and enlargement of the breasts.
• DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS IN THE EMBRYO AND FETUS
The development of the reproductive systems begins soon after

fertilization of the egg, with primordial gonads beginning to develop
approximately one month after conception. Reproductive development
continues in utero, but there is little change in the reproductive system between
infancy and puberty.
Females are considered the “fundamental” sex—that is, without much

chemical prompting, all fertilized eggs would develop into females. To become
a male, an individual must be exposed to the cascade of factors initiated by a
single gene on the male Y chromosome. This is called the SRY (Sex-
determining Region of the Y chromosome). Because females do not have a Y
chromosome, they do not have the SRY gene. Without a functional SRY gene,
an individual will be female.
In both male and female embryos, the same group of cells has the
potential to develop into either the male or female gonads; this tissue is
considered bipotential. The SRY gene actively recruits other genes that begin
to develop the testes, and suppresses genes that are important in female
development. As part of this SRY-prompted cascade, germ cells in the
bipotential gonads differentiate into spermatogonia. Without SRY, different
genes are expressed, oogonia form, and primordial follicles develop in the
primitive ovary.
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Soon after the formation of the testis, the Leydig cells begin to secrete
testosterone. Testosterone can influence tissues that are bipotential to become
male reproductive structures. For example, with exposure to testosterone, cells
that could become either the glans penis or the glans clitoris form the glans
penis. Without testosterone, these same cells differentiate into the clitoris.
Not all tissues in the reproductive tract are bipotential. The internal
reproductive structures (for example the uterus, uterine tubes, and part of the
vagina in females; and the epididymis, ductus deferens, and seminal vesicles
in males) form from one of two rudimentary duct systems in the embryo. For
proper reproductive function in the adult, one set of these ducts must develop
properly, and the other must degrade. In males, secretions from sustentacular
cells trigger a degradation of the female duct, called the Müllerian duct. At the
same time, testosterone secretion stimulates growth of the male tract,
the Wolffian duct. Without such sustentacular cell secretion, the Müllerian duct
will develop; without testosterone, the Wolffian duct will degrade. Thus, the
developing offspring will be female. For more information and a figure of
differentiation of the gonads, seek additional content on fetal development.
Figure 6 – 3. General Structure of Reproductive System.
Rice University (N.D.) 189 27.3 Development of Male and Female Reproductive Systems.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/27-3-
development-of-the-male-and-female-reproductive-systems/
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Rice University (N.D.) 187 27.1 Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/27-1-anatomy-
and-physiology-of-the-male-reproductive-system/
Rice University (N.D.) 188 27.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Female Reproductive System.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/27-2-anatomy-
and-physiology-of-the-female-reproductive-system/
Let’s Check
Activity 28. Identify the parts of the male and female reproductive system and
Integumentary system using the diagram below. After that, you will need to write the
functions of identified parts on the space below.
The Male Reproductive System
Functions:
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________
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11. ___________________________________________________________
12. ___________________________________________________________
The Female Reproductive System
3.
7.
8. 6.
1.
2.
5.
4.
Functions:
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________
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The Integumentary System
10.
1.
2.
6.
3.
7. 4.
8.
5.
9.
Functions:
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 29. In this task, you are going to provide an explanation from each
statement below. You can refer to the discussions earlier but you can’t merely copy all
the details, therefore you will create your own elaboration.
1. Describe how penile erection occurs.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Explain what would occur during fetal development to an XY individual with a

mutation causing a nonfunctional SRY gene.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Why do people sweat excessively when exercising outside on a hot day?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Explain your skin’s response to a drop in body core temperature.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
In a Nutshell
Activity 30. Finally in this task, you are going to provide your deep knowledge
about the reproductive system and the integumentary system. Using a concept map,
you are going to present a process or flow on each of the body system. Part one will
be the process or flow of offspring production and on the second part will be a sweat
process in the skin.
Part 1:
The Reproductive System
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Part 2:
The Integumentary System
1.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Examine and analyze the basic structure
and functions of the Digestive system and Excretory system.
Metalanguage
The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate the
complex tasks it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony. Consider what
happens when you eat an apple. Of course, you enjoy the apple’s taste as you chew
it, but in the hours that follow, unless something goes amiss and you get a
stomachache, you don’t notice that your digestive system is working. You may be
taking a walk or studying or sleeping, having forgotten all about the apple, but your
stomach and intestines are busy digesting it and absorbing its vitamins and other
nutrients. By the time any waste material is excreted, the body has appropriated all it
can use from the apple.
In short, whether you pay attention or not, the organs of the digestive system
perform their specific functions, allowing you to use the food you eat to keep you going.
This specific part of the unit examines the structure and functions of these organs as
well as the process of eliminating the waste and excretion of it, and also it explores
the mechanics and chemistry of the digestive and excretive processes.
• DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – consist of the mouth that breaks down the food into
tiny bits. Then it travels down the esophagus which is connected to the stomach
where the digestive process is strongest. Then the food flows down the small
intestine. Food nutrients seep through the thin walls into the blood. The large
intestine holds the food that the body cannot digest. Later it passes out the body
through the rectum.
• EXCRETORY SYSTEM – the organs in several systems absorb and excrete
various wastes. The digestive system excrete undigested food through the
rectum, the kidney removes waste from the blood in the form of urine. The
respiratory system gives out carbon dioxide as waste product while the skin
gives out perspiration that even carries salt and fats.
Essential Knowledge
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release
their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. Although the small intestine
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is the workhorse of the system, where the majority of digestion occurs, and where
most of the released nutrients are absorbed into the blood or lymph, each of the
digestive system organs makes a vital contribution to this process (Figure 6 – 4).
Figure 6 – 4. The Components of the Digestive System.
As is the case with all body systems, the digestive system does not work in
isolation; it functions cooperatively with the other systems of the body. Consider for
example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems.
Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins
drain the digestive tract. These intestinal veins, constituting the hepatic portal system,
are unique; they do not return blood directly to the heart. Rather, this blood is diverted
to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its
circuit back to the heart. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to
the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning.
The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical.

Hormones secreted by several endocrine glands, as well as endocrine cells of the
pancreas, the stomach, and the small intestine, contribute to the control of digestion
and nutrient metabolism. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel
endocrine function. In the table below gives a quick glimpse at how these other
systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system.
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Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System

Body system Benefits received by the digestive system
Cardiovascular Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed
nutrients
Endocrine Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands
and accessory organs
Integumentary Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for
calcium absorption
Lymphatic Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue
defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and
lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream
Muscular Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs
Nervous Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle
contractions in the digestive tract
Respiratory Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Skeletal Bones help protect and support digestive organs
Urinary Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium
absorption in the small intestine
DIGESTIVE PROCESSES AND REGULATION
The digestive system uses mechanical and chemical activities to break food
down into absorbable substances during its journey through the digestive
system. Table below provides an overview of the basic functions of the digestive
organs.
Functions of the Digestive Organs
Organ Major functions Other functions
Mouth • Ingests food • Moistens and dissolves
• Chews and mixes food food, allowing you to
• Begins chemical taste it
breakdown of • Cleans and lubricates the
carbohydrates teeth and oral cavity
• Moves food into the • Has some antimicrobial
pharynx activity
• Begins breakdown of lipids
via lingual lipase
Pharynx • Propels food from the oral • Lubricates food and

cavity to the esophagus passageways
Esophagus • Propels food to the • Lubricates food and

stomach passageways
Stomach • Mixes and churns food • Stimulates protein-

with gastric juices to form digesting enzymes
chyme • Secretes intrinsic factor
• Begins chemical required for vitamin
breakdown of proteins
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• Releases food into the B12 absorption in small

duodenum as chyme intestine
• Absorbs some fat-soluble
substances (for example,
alcohol, aspirin)
• Possesses antimicrobial
functions
Small • Mixes chyme with • Provides optimal medium

intestine digestive juices for enzymatic activity
• Propels food at a rate slow
enough for digestion and
absorption
• Absorbs breakdown
products of carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids, along with
vitamins, minerals, and
water
• Performs physical
digestion via segmentation
Accessory • Liver: produces bile salts, • Bicarbonate-rich

organs which emulsify lipids, pancreatic juices help
aiding their digestion and neutralize acidic chyme
absorption and provide optimal
• Gallbladder: stores, environment for
concentrates, and enzymatic activity
releases bile
• Pancreas: produces
digestive enzymes and
bicarbonate
Large • Further breaks down food • Food residue is

intestine residues concentrated and
• Absorbs most residual temporarily stored prior to
water, electrolytes, and defecation
vitamins produced by • Mucus eases passage of
enteric bacteria feces through colon
• Propels feces toward
rectum
• Eliminates feces
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THE ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. THE MOUTH
The cheeks, tongue, and palate frame the mouth, which is also called the oral
cavity (or buccal cavity). The structures of the mouth are illustrated in (Figure
6 – 5).
At the entrance to the mouth are the lips, or labia (singular = labium).
Their outer covering is skin, which transitions to a mucous membrane in the
mouth proper. Lips are very vascular with a thin layer of keratin; hence, the
reason they are “red.” They have a huge representation on the cerebral cortex,
which probably explains the human fascination with kissing! The lips cover the
orbicularis oris muscle, which regulates what comes in and goes out of the
mouth. The labial frenulum is a midline fold of mucous membrane that
attaches the inner surface of each lip to the gum. The cheeks make up the oral
cavity’s sidewalls. While their outer covering is skin, their inner covering is
mucous membrane. This membrane is made up of non-keratinized, stratified
squamous epithelium. Between the skin and mucous membranes are
connective tissue and buccinator muscles. The next time you eat some food,
notice how the buccinator muscles in your cheeks and the orbicularis oris
muscle in your lips contract, helping you keep the food from falling out of your
mouth. Additionally, notice how these muscles work when you are speaking.
The pocket-like part of the mouth that is framed on the inside by the
gums and teeth, and on the outside by the cheeks and lips is called the oral
vestibule. Moving farther into the mouth, the opening between the oral cavity
and throat (oropharynx) is called the fauces (like the kitchen “faucet”). The
main open area of the mouth, or oral cavity proper, runs from the gums and
teeth to the fauces.
When you are chewing, you do not find it difficult to breathe

simultaneously. The next time you have food in your mouth, notice how the
arched shape of the roof of your mouth allows you to handle both digestion and
respiration at the same time. This arch is called the palate. The anterior region
of the palate serves as a wall (or septum) between the oral and nasal cavities
as well as a rigid shelf against which the tongue can push food. It is created by
the maxillary and palatine bones of the skull and, given its bony structure, is
known as the hard palate. If you run your tongue along the roof of your mouth,
you’ll notice that the hard palate ends in the posterior oral cavity, and the tissue
becomes fleshier. This part of the palate, known as the soft palate, is
composed mainly of skeletal muscle. You can therefore manipulate,
subconsciously, the soft palate—for instance, to yawn, swallow, or sing (Figure
6 – 5).
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Figure 6 – 5. The Mouth (anterior view).
2. THE PHARYNX
The pharynx (throat) is involved in both digestion and respiration. It

receives food and air from the mouth, and air from the nasal cavities. When
food enters the pharynx, involuntary muscle contractions close off the air
passageways.
A short tube of skeletal muscle lined with a mucous membrane, the

pharynx runs from the posterior oral and nasal cavities to the opening of the
esophagus and larynx. It has three subdivisions. The most superior, the
nasopharynx, is involved only in breathing and speech. The other two
subdivisions, the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx, are used for both
breathing and digestion. The oropharynx begins inferior to the nasopharynx and
is continuous below with the laryngopharynx (Figure 6 – 6). The inferior border
of the laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus, whereas the anterior portion
connects to the larynx, allowing air to flow into the bronchial tree.
During swallowing, the elevator skeletal muscles of the pharynx contract,

raising and expanding the pharynx to receive the bolus of food. Once received,
these muscles relax and the constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing
the bolus into the esophagus and initiating peristalsis.
Usually during swallowing, the soft palate and uvula rise reflexively to
close off the entrance to the nasopharynx. At the same time, the larynx is pulled
superiorly and the cartilaginous epiglottis, its most superior structure, folds
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inferiorly, covering the glottis (the opening to the larynx); this process effectively
blocks access to the trachea and bronchi. When the food “goes down the wrong
way,” it goes into the trachea. When food enters the trachea, the reaction is to
cough, which usually forces the food up and out of the trachea, and back into
the pharynx.
Figure 6 – 6. The Pharynx.
3. THE ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the

stomach. It is approximately 25.4 cm (10 in) in length, located posterior to the
trachea, and remains in a collapsed form when not engaged in swallowing. As
you can see in Figure 6 – 7, the esophagus runs a mainly straight route through
the mediastinum of the thorax. To enter the abdomen, the esophagus
penetrates the diaphragm through an opening called the esophageal hiatus.
The upper esophageal sphincter, which is continuous with the inferior

pharyngeal constrictor, controls the movement of food from the pharynx into the
esophagus. The upper two-thirds of the esophagus consists of both smooth
and skeletal muscle fibers, with the latter fading out in the bottom third of the
esophagus. Rhythmic waves of peristalsis, which begin in the upper
esophagus, propel the bolus of food toward the stomach. Meanwhile,
secretions from the esophageal mucosa lubricate the esophagus and food.
Food passes from the esophagus into the stomach at the lower esophageal
sphincter (also called the gastroesophageal or cardiac sphincter). Recall that
sphincters are muscles that surround tubes and serve as valves, closing the
tube when the sphincters contract and opening it when they relax. The lower
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esophageal sphincter relaxes to let food pass into the stomach, and then
contracts to prevent stomach acids from backing up into the esophagus.
Surrounding this sphincter is the muscular diaphragm, which helps close off the
sphincter when no food is being swallowed. When the lower esophageal
sphincter does not completely close, the stomach’s contents can reflux (that is,
back up into the esophagus), causing heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD).
Figure 6 – 7. The Esophagus.
The upper esophageal sphincter controls the movement of food from the
pharynx to the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter controls the
movement of food from the esophagus to the stomach.
4. THE STOMACH
There are four main regions in the stomach: the cardia, fundus, body,
and pylorus (Figure 6 – 8). The cardia (or cardiac region) is the point where the
esophagus connects to the stomach and through which food passes into the
stomach. Located inferior to the diaphragm, above and to the left of the cardia,
is the dome-shaped fundus. Below the fundus is the body, the main part of the
stomach. The funnel-shaped pylorus connects the stomach to the duodenum.
The wider end of the funnel, the pyloric antrum, connects to the body of the
stomach. The narrower end is called the pyloric canal, which connects to the
duodenum. The smooth muscle pyloric sphincter is located at this latter point
of connection and controls stomach emptying. In the absence of food, the
stomach deflates inward, and its mucosa and submucosa fall into a large fold
called a ruga.
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Figure 6 – 8. The Structure of Stomach.
The stomach participates in all digestive activities except ingestion and

defecation. It vigorously churns food. It secretes gastric juices that break down
food and absorbs certain drugs, including aspirin and some alcohol. The
stomach begins the digestion of protein and continues the digestion of
carbohydrates and fats. It stores food as an acidic liquid called chyme, and
releases it gradually into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.
5. THE SMALL INTESTINE
The coiled tube of the small intestine is subdivided into three regions.
From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum (Figure 6 – 9).
The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at

the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind
the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve
around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to
the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum. The duodenum can therefore be
subdivided into four segments: the superior, descending, horizontal, and
ascending duodenum.
Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of

Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the
anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile
duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic
duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This
ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called
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the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of

Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into
the duodenum.
Figure 6 – 9. The Small Intestine.
The digestion of proteins and carbohydrates, which partially occurs in

the stomach, is completed in the small intestine with the aid of intestinal and
pancreatic juices. Lipids arrive in the intestine largely undigested, so much of
the focus here is on lipid digestion, which is facilitated by bile and the enzyme
pancreatic lipase.
Moreover, intestinal juice combines with pancreatic juice to provide a

liquid medium that facilitates absorption. The intestine is also where most water
is absorbed, via osmosis. The small intestine’s absorptive cells also synthesize
digestive enzymes and then place them in the plasma membranes of the
microvilli. This distinguishes the small intestine from the stomach; that is,
enzymatic digestion occurs not only in the lumen, but also on the luminal
surfaces of the mucosal cells.
For optimal chemical digestion, chyme must be delivered from the

stomach slowly and in small amounts. This is because chyme from the stomach
is typically hypertonic, and if large quantities were forced all at once into the
small intestine, the resulting osmotic water loss from the blood into the intestinal
lumen would result in potentially life-threatening low blood volume. In addition,
continued digestion requires an upward adjustment of the low pH of stomach
chyme, along with rigorous mixing of the chyme with bile and pancreatic juices.
Both processes take time, so the pumping action of the pylorus must be
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carefully controlled to prevent the duodenum from being overwhelmed with

chyme.
6. THE LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is the terminal part of the alimentary canal. The
primary function of this organ is to finish absorption of nutrients and water,
synthesize certain vitamins, form feces, and eliminate feces from the body.
The large intestine runs from the appendix to the anus. It frames the
small intestine on three sides. Despite its being about one-half as long as the
small intestine, it is called large because it is more than twice the diameter of
the small intestine, about 3 inches. The large intestine is subdivided into four
main regions: the cecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anus. The ileocecal
valve, located at the opening between the ileum and the large intestine, controls
the flow of chyme from the small intestine to the large intestine.
Figure 6 – 10. The Large Intestine
The first part of the large intestine is the cecum, a sac-like structure that
is suspended inferior to the ileocecal valve. It is about 6 cm (2.4 in) long,
receives the contents of the ileum, and continues the absorption of water and
salts.
The cecum blends seamlessly with the colon. Upon entering the colon,
the food residue first travels up the ascending colon on the right side of the
abdomen. At the inferior surface of the liver, the colon bends to form the right
colic flexure (hepatic flexure) and becomes the transverse colon. The region
defined as hindgut begins with the last third of the transverse colon and
continues on. Food residue passing through the transverse colon travels across
to the left side of the abdomen, where the colon angles sharply immediately
inferior to the spleen, at the left colic flexure (splenic flexure). From there, food
residue passes through the descending colon, which runs down the left side
of the posterior abdominal wall. After entering the pelvis inferiorly, it becomes
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the s-shaped sigmoid colon, which extends medially to the midline (Figure 6
10).
Food residue leaving the sigmoid colon enters the rectum in the pelvis,
near the third sacral vertebra. The final 20.3 cm (8 in) of the alimentary canal,
the rectum extends anterior to the sacrum and coccyx. Even though rectum is
Latin for “straight,” this structure follows the curved contour of the sacrum and
has three lateral bends that create a trio of internal transverse folds called
the rectal valves. These valves help separate the feces from gas to prevent
the simultaneous passage of feces and gas.
Finally, food residue reaches the last part of the large intestine, the anal
canal, which is located in the perineum, completely outside of the
abdominopelvic cavity. This 3.8–5 cm (1.5–2 in) long structure opens to the
exterior of the body at the anus. The anal canal includes two sphincters.
The internal anal sphincter is made of smooth muscle, and its contractions
are involuntary. The external anal sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, which
is under voluntary control. Except when defecating, both usually remain closed.
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system in humans consists mainly of the kidneys and bladder.
The kidneys filter urea and other waste products from the blood, which are then added
to the urine within the bladder. Other organs, such as the liver, process toxins but put
their wastes back into the blood. It is up to the kidneys to filter the blood so that
toxic substances do not accumulate. These organs can be seen in the image
below.
Figure 7 – 1. The Urinary structure.
• EXCRETORY SYSTEM FUNCTION
The excretory system functions as the bulwark and balance to

the digestive system. While we consume food and drink to nourish the body
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and provide energy, the excretory system ensures that homeostasis is

maintained, irrespective of changes to the nutritive value of food.
It regulates the fluid balance of the body, maintaining adequate salt

and water levels. When there is excess water, it is removed through the
production of hypotonic urine. When we consume salty food or lose water
through perspiration, the concentration of urine is increased to preserve the
osmolarity of body fluids.
• EXCRETORY SYSTEM ORGANS
The primary excretory organs in the human body are the kidneys, ureters
and urinary bladder, involved with the creation and expulsion of urine. Through
these organs, much of the nitrogenous waste of the body, especially urea,
is expelled. Other organs such as the liver, large intestine and skin are also
necessary for the excretion of specific metabolic wastes.
• KIDNEYS
The kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs located in the abdomen,

on either side of the spine, under the diaphragm. They are made of a large
number of structural and functional subunits called nephrons. These
nephrons perform the primary task of filtering blood and removing waste
products. Each nephron snakes between the outer cortex of the kidney and the
inner medulla, with different activities occurring at each site.
Figure 7 – 2. Nephrons.
The image above shows parts of two nephrons, with their relative
positions within the kidney. Each nephron begins with a globular structure
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called the Bowman’s capsule located in the renal cortex. This structure receives
blood from renal circulation through an afferent arteriole that further divides to
form a tuft of capillaries called the glomerulus. The kidney is richly vascularized
with capillary beds surrounding each nephron (intertubular capillaries) as well
as blood vessels running between the lobes of the kidney (interlobular arteries
and veins).
• URINARY BLADDER
The urinary bladder is a sac-like structure with muscular walls that holds
urine until it is expelled from the body during micturition. The bladder receives
urine through two ureters – one from each kidney –that enter through
openings called ureteric orifices. These orifices are located at the convex
fundus of the organ. Urine exits the bladder through the urethra.
The walls of the bladder are made of smooth muscle and the inner epithelial
lining of this organ consists of a remarkable tissue called transitional epithelium.
The cells of this stratified tissue change shape based on whether the bladder is
empty or full, allowing it to remain elastic, accommodating up to half a liter of
urine.
In men, the bladder lies on the pelvic floor in front of the rectum. In women,
it is located near the uterus, leading to a number of changes to the patterns of
micturition during the course of pregnancy. During the course of gestation, there
are major changes to blood volume and increases in glomerular filtration rate.
While the bladder itself increases in size, nearly doubling by the end of the third
trimester, the enlarged uterus with the weight of the fetus, amniotic fluid, placenta,
and other tissues can create stress incontinence.
• LIVER
The liver is the main detoxifying organ of the body, especially for
nitrogenous wastes. The cells of the liver play host to biochemical processes that
create ammonia from amino acids. Since ammonia is extremely toxic, it is
quickly converted to urea before being transported in the blood towards the
kidney.
Most animals make the choice between ammonia, urea, and uric acid as the
preferred mode for nitrogenous waste excretion, based on the availability of water.
While ammonia is toxic, it can be quickly diluted and removed from the body with
ample water, and therefore remains the chemical used by aquatic
animals. Terrestrial animals with regular access to water tend to use urea,
which has lower toxicity. Birds and other animals that have minimal water intake
expend energy to convert urea into uric acid, which needs a minimum amount of
water to store safely until excretion.
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• LARGE INTESTINE
The liver is also necessary for the removal of the decomposed hemoglobin,
some drugs, excess vitamins, sterols, and other lipophilic substances. These are
secreted along with bile and finally removed from the body through feces. The large
intestine, therefore, plays a role in excretion, especially
for hydrophobic particles.
• SKIN
The skin is a secondary excretory organ since sweat glands in the dermis
can remove salts and some excess water. The skin also has sebaceous
glands that can secrete waxy lipids.
• LUNGS OR GILLS
A major product that must be excreted from all animals is carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is created in the cells, as they undergo aerobic respiration. This
waste product is removed from the cells and transferred to the bloodstream. When
the blood reaches the gills or lungs, it is exchanged for oxygen and released into
the atmosphere. Fish also use their gills to expel a number of other waste products.
Rice University (N.D.) 154 23.1 Overview of the Excretory System. Retrieved from
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/23-1-overview-of-the-digestive-
system/
Rice University (N.D.) 155. 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulations. Retrieved from
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/23-2-digestive-system-
processes-and-regulation/
Biology Dictionary (2020). Excretory System. Retrieved from.

https://biologydictionary.net/excretory-system/
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Let’s Check
Activity 31. Identify the parts of the digestive system using the diagram
below. After that, you will need to write the functions of identified parts on the space
below.
Functions:
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 32. In the table below, make a concept map that represent the process
of waste reduction process from the different organs of excretory system.
The Excretory System
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In a Nutshell
Activity 33. Finally in this task, you are going to present a deep understanding
about the digestive system and the excretory system. Using the table below make a
summary of the digestive process and excretory process in bullet form.
Digestive Process Excretory Process
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Examine and analyze the basic structure
and functions of the Lymphatic/Immune system and Endocrine
system.
Metalanguage
The immune system is the complex collection of cells and organs that
destroys or neutralizes pathogens that would otherwise cause disease or death. The
lymphatic system, for most people, is associated with the immune system to such a
degree that the two systems are virtually indistinguishable. The lymphatic system is
the system of vessels, cells, and organs that carries excess fluids to the bloodstream
and filters pathogens from the blood. The swelling of lymph nodes during an infection
and the transport of lymphocytes via the lymphatic vessels are but two examples of
the many connections between these critical organ systems.
1. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM - consist of the lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph

nodes, thymus gland and spleen. This system transports some of the tissue
fluid back to the blood stream and carries certain fatty substance away from
the digestive organs. The cells of the lymphatic system are called lymphocytes.
They defend the body against infection by removing the disease-causing
microorganisms and viruses from the tissue.
2. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – includes all the glands that secrete chemical
messengers called hormones that help control conditions within the body. They
are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, pineal glands
and thymus.
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THE STRUCTURE OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic vessels begin as open-ended capillaries, which feed into larger
and larger lymphatic vessels, and eventually empty into the bloodstream by a series
of ducts. Along the way, the lymph travels through the lymph nodes, which are
commonly found near the groin, armpits, neck, chest, and abdomen. Humans have
about 500–600 lymph nodes throughout the body (Figure 7 – 3).
Figure 7 – 3. Anatomy of Lymphatic System. Lymphatic vessels in the arms and

legs convey lymph to the larger lymphatic vessels in the torso.
A major distinction between the lymphatic and cardiovascular systems in

humans is that lymph is not actively pumped by the heart, but is forced through the
vessels by the movements of the body, the contraction of skeletal muscles during body
movements, and breathing. One-way valves (semi-lunar valves) in lymphatic vessels
keep the lymph moving toward the heart. Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries,
through lymphatic vessels, and then is dumped into the circulatory system via the
lymphatic ducts located at the junction of the jugular and subclavian veins in the neck.
LARGER LYMPHATIC VESSELS, TRUNKS, AND DUCTS
The lymphatic capillaries empty into larger lymphatic vessels, which are similar
to veins in terms of their three-tunic structure and the presence of valves. These one-
way valves are located fairly close to one another, and each one causes a bulge in
the lymphatic vessel, giving the vessels a beaded appearance (see Figure 7 – 4).
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The superficial and deep lymphatics eventually merge to form larger lymphatic
vessels known as lymphatic trunks. On the right side of the body, the right sides of
the head, thorax, and right upper limb drain lymph fluid into the right subclavian vein
via the right lymphatic duct (Figure 7 – 4). On the left side of the body, the remaining
portions of the body drain into the larger thoracic duct, which drains into the left
subclavian vein. The thoracic duct itself begins just beneath the diaphragm in
the cisterna chyli, a sac-like chamber that receives lymph from the lower abdomen,
pelvis, and lower limbs by way of the left and right lumbar trunks and the intestinal
trunk.
Figure 7 – 4. Major Trunks and Ducts of Lymphatic System.
The overall drainage system of the body is asymmetrical (see Figure 7 – 4).
The right lymphatic duct receives lymph from only the upper right side of the body.
The lymph from the rest of the body enters the bloodstream through the thoracic
duct via all the remaining lymphatic trunks. In general, lymphatic vessels of the
subcutaneous tissues of the skin, that is, the superficial lymphatics, follow the same
routes as veins, whereas the deep lymphatic vessels of the viscera generally follow
the paths of arteries.
THE ORGANIZATION OF IMMUNE FUNCTION
The immune system is a collection of barriers, cells, and soluble proteins that
interact and communicate with each other in extraordinarily complex ways. The
modern model of immune function is organized into three phases based on the timing
of their effects. The three temporal phases consist of the following:
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• Barrier defenses such as the skin and mucous membranes, which act
instantaneously to prevent pathogenic invasion into the body tissues.
• The rapid but nonspecific innate immune response, which consists of a
variety of specialized cells and soluble factors.
• The slower but more specific and effective adaptive immune response, which
involves many cell types and soluble factors, but is primarily controlled by white
blood cells (leukocytes) known as lymphocytes, which help control immune
responses.
The cells of the blood, including all those involved in the immune response, arise
in the bone marrow via various differentiation pathways from hematopoietic stem cells
(Figure 7 – 5). In contrast with embryonic stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells are
present throughout adulthood and allow for the continuous differentiation of blood cells
to replace those lost to age or function. These cells can be divided into three classes
based on function:
• Phagocytic cells, which ingest pathogens to destroy them.

• Lymphocytes, which specifically coordinate the activities of adaptive immunity.
• Cells containing cytoplasmic granules, which help mediate immune responses
against parasites and intracellular pathogens such as viruses.
Figure 7 – 5. Hematopoietic System of the Bone Marrow. All the cells of the immune
response as well as of the blood arise by differentiation from hematopoietic stem
cells. Platelets are cell fragments involved in the clotting of blood.
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PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS AND LYMPHOCITE DEVELOPMENT
Understanding the differentiation and development of B and T cells is critical to

the understanding of the adaptive immune response. It is through this process that the
body (ideally) learns to destroy only pathogens and leaves the body’s own cells
relatively intact. The primary lymphoid organs are the bone marrow and thymus
gland. The lymphoid organs are where lymphocytes mature, proliferate, and are
selected, which enables them to attack pathogens without harming the cells of the
body.
• THYMUS
The thymus gland is a bilobed organ found in the space between the
sternum and the aorta of the heart (Figure 7 – 6). Connective tissue holds the
lobes closely together but also separates them and forms a capsule.
Figure 7 – 6. Location, Structure and Histology of the Thymus.
The connective tissue capsule further divides the thymus into lobules via
extensions called trabeculae. The outer region of the organ is known as the
cortex and contains large numbers of thymocytes with some epithelial cells,
macrophages, and dendritic cells (two types of phagocytic cells that are derived
from monocytes). The cortex is densely packed so it stains more intensely than
the rest of the thymus (see Figure 7 – 6. The medulla, where thymocytes
migrate before leaving the thymus, contains a less dense collection of
thymocytes, epithelial cells, and dendritic cells.
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SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS AND THEIR ROLES IN ACTIVE IMMUNE

RESPONSES
Lymphocytes develop and mature in the primary lymphoid organs, but they mount
immune responses from the secondary lymphoid organs. A naïve lymphocyte is
one that has left the primary organ and entered a secondary lymphoid organ. Naïve
lymphocytes are fully functional immunologically, but have yet to encounter an antigen
to respond to. In addition to circulating in the blood and lymph, lymphocytes
concentrate in secondary lymphoid organs, which include the lymph nodes, spleen,
and lymphoid nodules. All of these tissues have many features in common, including
the following:
• The presence of lymphoid follicles, the sites of the formation of lymphocytes,

with specific B cell-rich and T cell-rich areas.
• An internal structure of reticular fibers with associated fixed macrophages.
• Germinal centers, which are the sites of rapidly dividing B lymphocytes and
plasma cells, with the exception of the spleen.
• Specialized post-capillary vessels known as high endothelial venules; the
cells lining these venules are thicker and more columnar than normal
endothelial cells, which allow cells from the blood to directly enter these tissues.
• LYMPH NODES
Lymph nodes function to remove debris and pathogens from the lymph,
and are thus sometimes referred to as the “filters of the lymph” (Figure 7 – 7).
Any bacteria that infect the interstitial fluid are taken up by the lymphatic
capillaries and transported to a regional lymph node. Dendritic cells and
macrophages within this organ internalize and kill many of the pathogens that
pass through, thereby removing them from the body. The lymph node is also
the site of adaptive immune responses mediated by T cells, B cells, and
accessory cells of the adaptive immune system. Like the thymus, the bean-
shaped lymph nodes are surrounded by a tough capsule of connective tissue
and are separated into compartments by trabeculae, the extensions of the
capsule. In addition to the structure provided by the capsule and trabeculae,
the structural support of the lymph node is provided by a series of reticular fibers
laid down by fibroblasts.
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Figure 7 – 7. Structure and Histology of a Lymph Node.
The major routes into the lymph node are via afferent lymphatic
vessels. Cells and lymph fluid that leave the lymph node may do so by another
set of vessels known as the efferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph enters the
lymph node via the subcapsular sinus, which is occupied by dendritic cells,
macrophages, and reticular fibers. Within the cortex of the lymph node are
lymphoid follicles, which consist of germinal centers of rapidly dividing B cells
surrounded by a layer of T cells and other accessory cells. As the lymph
continues to flow through the node, it enters the medulla, which consists of
medullary cords of B cells and plasma cells, and the medullary sinuses where
the lymph collects before leaving the node via the efferent lymphatic vessels.
• SPLEEN
In addition to the lymph nodes, the spleen is a major secondary

lymphoid organ (Figure 7 – 8). It is about 12 cm (5 in) long and is attached to
the lateral border of the stomach via the gastrosplenic ligament. The spleen is
a fragile organ without a strong capsule, and is dark red due to its extensive
vascularization. The spleen is sometimes called the “filter of the blood” because
of its extensive vascularization and the presence of macrophages and dendritic
cells that remove microbes and other materials from the blood, including dying
red blood cells. The spleen also functions as the location of immune responses
to blood-borne pathogens.
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Figure 7 – 8. Spleen. (a) The spleen is attached to the stomach. (b) A

micrograph of spleen tissue shows the germinal center.
The spleen is also divided by trabeculae of connective tissue, and within

each splenic nodule is an area of red pulp, consisting of mostly red blood cells,
and white pulp, which resembles the lymphoid follicles of the lymph nodes.
Upon entering the spleen, the splenic artery splits into several arterioles
(surrounded by white pulp) and eventually into sinusoids. Blood from the
capillaries subsequently collects in the venous sinuses and leaves via the
splenic vein.
The red pulp consists of reticular fibers with fixed macrophages
attached, free macrophages, and all of the other cells typical of the blood,
including some lymphocytes. The white pulp surrounds a central arteriole and
consists of germinal centers of dividing B cells surrounded by T cells and
accessory cells, including macrophages and dendritic cells. Thus, the red pulp
primarily functions as a filtration system of the blood, using cells of the relatively
nonspecific immune response, and white pulp is where adaptive T and B cell
responses are mounted.
• LYMPHOID NODULES
The other lymphoid tissues, the lymphoid nodules, have a simpler

architecture than the spleen and lymph nodes in that they consist of a dense
cluster of lymphocytes without a surrounding fibrous capsule. These nodules
are located in the respiratory and digestive tracts, areas routinely exposed to
environmental pathogens.
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Tonsils are lymphoid nodules located along the inner surface of the
pharynx and are important in developing immunity to oral pathogens (Figure 7
– 9). The tonsil located at the back of the throat, the pharyngeal tonsil, is
sometimes referred to as the adenoid when swollen. Such swelling is an
indication of an active immune response to infection. Histologically, tonsils do
not contain a complete capsule, and the epithelial layer invaginates deeply into
the interior of the tonsil to form tonsillar crypts. These structures, which
accumulate all sorts of materials taken into the body through eating and
breathing, actually “encourage” pathogens to penetrate deep into the tonsillar
tissues where they are acted upon by numerous lymphoid follicles and
eliminated. This seems to be the major function of tonsils—to help children’s
bodies recognize, destroy, and develop immunity to common environmental
pathogens so that they will be protected in their later lives. Tonsils are often
removed in those children who have recurring throat infections, especially those
involving the palatine tonsils on either side of the throat, whose swelling may
interfere with their breathing and/or swallowing.
Figure 7 – 9. Locations and Histology of the Tonsils. (a) The

pharyngeal tonsil is located on the roof of the posterior superior wall of the
nasopharynx. The palatine tonsils lay on each side of the pharynx. (b) A
micrograph shows the palatine tonsil tissue.
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The lymphatic system is a series of vessels, ducts, and trunks that remove
interstitial fluid from the tissues and return it the blood. The lymphatics are also used
to transport dietary lipids and cells of the immune system. Cells of the immune system
all come from the hematopoietic system of the bone marrow. Primary lymphoid organs,
the bone marrow and thymus gland, are the locations where lymphocytes of the
adaptive immune system proliferate and mature. Secondary lymphoid organs are site
in which mature lymphocytes congregate to mount immune responses. Many immune
system cells use the lymphatic and circulatory systems for transport throughout the
body to search for and then protect against pathogens.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Communication is a process in which a sender transmits signals to one or more

receivers to control and coordinate actions. In the human body, two major organ
systems participate in relatively “long distance” communication: the nervous system
and the endocrine system. Together, these two systems are primarily responsible for
maintaining homeostasis in the body.
NEURAL AND ENDOCRINE SIGNALING
The nervous system uses two types of intercellular communication—electrical

and chemical signaling—either by the direct action of an electrical potential, or in the
latter case, through the action of chemical neurotransmitters such as serotonin or
norepinephrine. Neurotransmitters act locally and rapidly. When an electrical signal in
the form of an action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal, they diffuse across the
synaptic cleft (the gap between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron or muscle
cell). Once the neurotransmitters interact (bind) with receptors on the receiving (post-
synaptic) cell, the receptor stimulation is transduced into a response such as continued
electrical signaling or modification of cellular response. The target cell responds within
milliseconds of receiving the chemical “message”; this response then ceases very
quickly once the neural signaling ends. In this way, neural communication enables
body functions that involve quick, brief actions, such as movement, sensation, and
cognition.In contrast, the endocrine system uses just one method of communication:
chemical signaling.
These signals are sent by the endocrine organs, which secrete chemicals—
the hormone—into the extracellular fluid. Hormones are transported primarily via the
bloodstream throughout the body, where they bind to receptors on target cells,
inducing a characteristic response. As a result, endocrine signaling requires more time
than neural signaling to prompt a response in target cells, though the precise amount
of time varies with different hormones. For example, the hormones released when you
are confronted with a dangerous or frightening situation, called the fight-or-flight
response, occur by the release of adrenal hormones—epinephrine and
norepinephrine—within seconds. In contrast, it may take up to 48 hours for target cells
to respond to certain reproductive hormones.
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In addition, endocrine signaling is typically less specific than neural signaling.

The same hormone may play a role in a variety of different physiological processes
depending on the target cells involved. For example, the hormone oxytocin promotes
uterine contractions in women in labor. It is also important in breastfeeding, and may
be involved in the sexual response and in feelings of emotional attachment in both
males and females.
In general, the nervous system involves quick responses to rapid changes in

the external environment, and the endocrine system is usually slower acting—taking
care of the internal environment of the body, maintaining homeostasis, and controlling
reproduction (See table below). So how does the fight-or-flight response that was
mentioned earlier happen so quickly if hormones are usually slower acting? It is
because the two systems are connected. It is the fast action of the nervous system in
response to the danger in the environment that stimulates the adrenal glands to
secrete their hormones. As a result, the nervous system can cause rapid endocrine
responses to keep up with sudden changes in both the external and internal
environments when necessary.
Endocrine and Nervous Systems (Table 1)

Endocrine system Nervous system
Signaling mechanism(s) Chemical Chemical/electrical
Primary chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters
Distance traveled Long or short Always short
Response time Fast or slow Always fast
Environment targeted Internal Internal and external
STRUCTURES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete
hormones as a primary or secondary function. The endocrine gland is the major
player in this system. The primary function of these ductless glands is to secrete their
hormones directly into the surrounding fluid. The interstitial fluid and the blood vessels
then transport the hormones throughout the body. The endocrine system includes the
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands (Figure 7 – 10). Some of
these glands have both endocrine and non-endocrine functions. For example, the
pancreas contains cells that function in digestion as well as cells that secrete the
hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood glucose levels. The
hypothalamus, thymus, heart, kidneys, stomach, small intestine, liver, skin, female
ovaries, and male testes are other organs that contain cells with endocrine function.
Moreover, adipose tissue has long been known to produce hormones, and recent
research has revealed that even bone tissue has endocrine functions.
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Figure 7 – 10. Endocrine System. Endocrine glands and cells are located throughout
the body and play an important role in homeostasis.
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete
hormones critical to homeostasis. The body coordinates its functions through two
major types of communication: neural and endocrine. Neural communication includes
both electrical and chemical signaling between neurons and target cells. Endocrine
communication involves chemical signaling via the release of hormones into the
extracellular fluid. From there, hormones diffuse into the bloodstream and may travel
to distant body regions, where they elicit a response in target cells. Endocrine glands
are ductless glands that secrete hormones. Many organs of the body with other
primary functions—such as the heart, stomach, and kidneys—also have hormone-
secreting cells.
THE PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus–pituitary complex can be thought of as the “command

center” of the endocrine system. This complex secretes several hormones that directly
produce responses in target tissues, as well as hormones that regulate the synthesis
and secretion of hormones of other glands. In addition, the hypothalamus–pituitary
complex coordinates the messages of the endocrine and nervous systems. In many
cases, a stimulus received by the nervous system must pass through the
hypothalamus–pituitary complex to be translated into hormones that can initiate a
response.
The hypothalamus is a structure of the diencephalon of the brain located

anterior and inferior to the thalamus (Figure 8 – 1). It has both neural and endocrine
functions, producing and secreting many hormones. In addition, the hypothalamus is
anatomically and functionally related to the pituitary gland (or hypophysis), a bean-
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sized organ suspended from it by a stem called the infundibulum (or pituitary stalk).
The pituitary gland is cradled within the sellaturcica of the sphenoid bone of the skull.
It consists of two lobes that arise from distinct parts of embryonic tissue: the posterior
pituitary (neurohypophysis) is neural tissue, whereas the anterior pituitary (also known
as the adenohypophysis) is glandular tissue that develops from the primitive digestive
tract. The hormones secreted by the posterior and anterior pituitary, and the
intermediate zone between the lobes are summarized in the table below.
Figure 8 – 1. Hypothalamus–Pituitary Complex. The hypothalamus region lies

inferior and anterior to the thalamus. It connects to the pituitary gland by the stalk-
like infundibulum. The pituitary gland consists of an anterior and posterior lobe, with
each lobe secreting different hormones in response to signals from the
hypothalamus.
Pituitary Hormones (Table 3)

Pituitary lobe Associated hormones Chemical Effect
class
Anterior Growth hormone (GH) Protein Promotes growth of
body tissues
Anterior Prolactin (PRL) Peptide Promotes milk
production from
mammary glands
Anterior Thyroid-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates thyroid
hormone (TSH) hormone release from
thyroid
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Anterior Adrenocorticotropic Peptide Stimulates hormone

hormone (ACTH) release by adrenal
cortex
Anterior Follicle-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates gamete
hormone (FSH) production in gonads
Anterior Luteinizing hormone Glycoprotein Stimulates androgen
(LH) production by gonads
Posterior Antidiuretic hormone Peptide Stimulates water
(ADH) reabsorption by kidneys
Posterior Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine
contractions during
childbirth
Intermediate Melanocyte-stimulating Peptide Stimulates melanin
zone hormone formation in
melanocytes
THE THYROID GLAND
A butterfly-shaped organ, the thyroid gland is located anterior to the trachea,

just inferior to the larynx (Figure 8 – 2). The medial region, called the isthmus, is
flanked by wing-shaped left and right lobes. Each of the thyroid lobes are embedded
with parathyroid glands, primarily on their posterior surfaces. The tissue of the thyroid
gland is composed mostly of thyroid follicles. The follicles are made up of a central
cavity filled with a sticky fluid called colloid. Surrounded by a wall of epithelial follicle
cells, the colloid is the center of thyroid hormone production, and that production is
dependent on the hormones’ essential and unique component: iodine.
Figure 8 – 2. Thyroid Gland. The thyroid gland is located in the neck where it wraps
around the trachea. (a) Anterior view of the thyroid gland. (b) Posterior view of the
thyroid gland. (c) The glandular tissue is composed primarily of thyroid follicles.
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THE PARATHYROID GLANDS
The parathyroid glands are tiny, round structures usually found embedded in
the posterior surface of the thyroid gland (Figure 8 – 2). A thick connective tissue
capsule separates the glands from the thyroid tissue. Most people have four
parathyroid glands, but occasionally there are more in tissues of the neck or chest.
The function of one type of parathyroid cells, the oxyphil cells, is not clear. The primary
functional cells of the parathyroid glands are the chief cells. These epithelial cells
produce and secrete the parathyroid hormone (PTH), the major hormone involved
in the regulation of blood calcium levels.
Figure 8 – 3. Parathyroid Glands. The small parathyroid glands are embedded in the
posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
Calcium is required for a variety of important physiologic processes, including

neuromuscular functioning; thus, blood calcium levels are closely regulated. The
parathyroid glands are small structures located on the posterior thyroid gland that
produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood calcium levels. Low blood
calcium levels cause the production and secretion of PTH. In contrast, elevated blood
calcium levels inhibit secretion of PTH and trigger secretion of the thyroid hormone
calcitonin. Underproduction of PTH can result in hypoparathyroidism. In contrast,
overproduction of PTH can result in hyperparathyroidism.
THE ADRENAL GLANDS
The adrenal glands are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue

adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule (Figure 8 – 4). The adrenal
glands have a rich blood supply and experience one of the highest rates of blood flow
in the body. They are served by several arteries branching off the aorta, including the
suprarenal and renal arteries. Blood flows to each adrenal gland at the adrenal cortex
and then drains into the adrenal medulla. Adrenal hormones are released into the
circulation via the left and right suprarenal veins.
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Figure 8 – 4. Adrenal Glands. Both adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are
composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla, all surrounded by a connective
tissue capsule. The cortex can be subdivided into additional zones, all of which
produce different types of hormones.
THE PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland is an endocrine structure of the diencephalon of the brain, and
is located inferior and posterior to the thalamus. It is made up of pinealocytes. These
cells produce and secrete the hormone melatonin in response to low light levels. High
blood levels of melatonin induce drowsiness. Jet lag, caused by traveling across
several time zones, occurs because melatonin synthesis takes several days to
readjust to the light-dark patterns in the new environment (See Figure 7 – 10).
THE PANCREAS
The pancreas is a long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the
bottom half of the stomach (Figure 8 – 5). Although it is primarily an exocrine gland,
secreting a variety of digestive enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine function.
Its pancreatic islets—clusters of cells formerly known as the islets of Langerhans—
secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide
(PP).
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Figure 8 – 5. Pancreas.
The pancreatic exocrine function involves the acinar cells secreting digestive
enzymes that are transported into the small intestine by the pancreatic duct. Its
endocrine function involves the secretion of insulin (produced by beta cells) and
glucagon (produced by alpha cells) within the pancreatic islets. These two hormones
regulate the rate of glucose metabolism in the body.
Rice University (N.D.) 106 17.1 An overview of the Endocrine System. Retrieved from
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/17-1-an-overview-of-the-
endocrine-system/
Rice University (N.D.) 138 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune System. Retrieved
from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/21-1-anatomy-of-the-
lymphatic-and-immune-systems/
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Let’s Check
Activity 34. For this task, you are going to identify the parts of the endocrine
system and the lymphatic/immune system using the diagrams below. After that, you
are going to write the functions of identified parts on the space provided below.
The Endocrine System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Functions:
1. ______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________
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The Lymphatic/Immune System
1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Functions:
1. ______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 35. In this activity, you are going to provide your elaboration for the
following questions below.
1. Describe the flow of lymph from its origins in interstitial fluid to its emptying into
the venous bloodstream.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Describe several main differences in the communication methods used by the

endocrine system and the nervous system.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. True or false: Neurotransmitters are a special class of paracrines. Explain your

answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX.
This portion includes all the terms describe in this entire course that helps you
for recalling concepts.
Anatomy Physiology Human Skeletal Muscular

Movement System System
Nervous Circulatory System Integumentary Reproductive Digestive

System System System System
Excretory Lymphatic/Immune Endocrine Physics of Life Three Class

System System System Levers
Relative Body Levels of Anatomical Structure
Positions Sections/Planes Organizations Terminologies
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COURSE SCHEDULES
Activity Date Where to submit

Big picture A: Let’s Check CF’s email
Big picture A: Let’s Analyze CF’s email
Big picture A: In a Nutshell BB’s forum feature
Big picture A: Q&A List BB’s discussion feature
Big picture B: Let’s Check CF’s email
Big picture B: Let’s Analyze CF’s email
Big picture B: In a Nutshell BB’s forum feature
Big picture B: Q&A List BB’s discussion feature
Big picture C: Let’s Check CF’s email
Big picture C: Let’s Analyze CF’s email
Big picture C: In a Nutshell BB’s forum feature
Big picture C: Q&A List BB’s discussion feature
First Exam CF’s Email
Second Exam CF’s Email
Third Exam CF’s Email
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Fourth/Final Exam CF’s Email
Online Code of Conduct
1. (1) All teachers/Course Facilitators and students are expected to abide by an

honor code of conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise
self- management and self-regulation.
2. (2) Faculty members are guided by utmost professional conduct as learning
facilitators in holding OBD and DED conduct. Any breach and violation shall
be dealt with properly under existing guidelines, specifically on social media
conduct (OPM 21.15) and personnel discipline (OPM 21.11).
3. (3) All students are likewise guided by professional conduct as learners in
attending OBD or DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with
properly under existing guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student
Discipline) in the Student Handbook.
4. (4) Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the
University’s Core Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty
and integrity; academic excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class
participation in all lectures and activities, as well as fidelity in doing and
submitting performance tasks and assignments; personal discipline in
complying with all deadlines; and observance of data privacy.
5. (5) Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with
accordingly. The University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to
detect and penalize plagiarism.
6. (6) All borrowed materials uploaded by the teachers/Course Facilitators shall
be properly acknowledged and cited; the teachers/Course Facilitators shall be
professionally and personally responsible for all the materials uploaded in the
online classes or published in SIM/SDL manuals.
7. (7) Teachers/Course Facilitators shall devote time to handle OBD or DED
courses and shall honestly exercise due assessment of student performance.
8. (8) Teachers/Course Facilitators shall never engage in quarrels with students
online. While contentions intellectual discussions are allowed, the
teachers/Course Facilitators shall take the higher ground in facilitating and
moderating these discussions. Foul, lewd, vulgar and discriminatory
languages are absolutely prohibited.
9. (9) Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do
assignments, unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students
shall not resort to dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g.
examinations, assignments).
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10. Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account.
Students shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to
others to further academic fraudulence online.
11. By handling OBD or DED courses, teachers/Course Facilitators agree and
abide by all the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the
requirements and protocols in handling online courses.
12. By enrolling in OBD or DED courses, students agree and abide by all the
provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
Monitoring of OBD and DED
(1)The Deans, Asst. Deans, Discipline Chairs and Program Heads shall be
responsible in monitoring the conduct of their respective OBD classes through the
Blackboard LMS. The LMS monitoring protocols shall be followed, i.e. monitoring of
the conduct of Teacher Activities (Views and Posts) with generated utilization graphs
and data. Individual faculty PDF utilization reports shall be generated and
consolidated by program and by college.
(2) The Academic Affairs and Academic Planning & Services shall monitor the
conduct of LMS sessions. The Academic Vice Presidents and the Deans shall
collaborate to conduct virtual CETA by randomly joining LMS classes to check and
review online the status and interaction of the faculty and the students.
(3)For DED, the Deans and Program Heads shall come up with monitoring
instruments, taking into consideration how the programs go about the conduct of
DED classes. Consolidated reports shall be submitted to Academic Affairs for
endorsement to the Chief Operating Officer.
Course prepared by:
ALLAN D. ARLOS, LPT.

Name of Course Facilitator/Faculty
Course reviewed by:
DANN IAN G. BROA, LPT.

Name of Program Head
Approved by:
EDUARD L. PULVERA, MSIS

Name of Dean
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UM Digos College

Department of Teacher Education

Course Outline: BPE 112 – Anatomy and Physiology of Human Movement

Course Coordinator: Allan D. Arlos, LPT.

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the features

Since this course is included in the licensure examination for

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has a valid

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate your

Course discussions/exercises – 40%

Preliminary Exam – 10%

Final Exam – 30%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual University

Library Contact ??????????????????????????????????????????

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the blackboard

CO The course provides an understanding of the structure of the body and

a. Explain thoroughly the essential terms under anatomy and

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Explain thoroughly the essential terms

1. Anatomy. Is often defined as the study of the structure of an organisms and

Like most scientific disciplines, anatomy has areas of

Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s

Biology is defined as the scientific study of life. Both anatomy and

Whereas anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function.

Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch

3. Kinesiology. The term Kinesiology coined in 1854 by Carl Georgii , the

Kinesiology was further developed by an American chiropractor, George

Here are the 9 main objectives of Kinesiology:

4. Body Mechanics. It involves the coordinated functions of muscles, bones, and

A series of excessive use of energy or body may lead to various muscle

Below are the most common health hazards:

Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSI). Is an injury or disorder of the muscles,

List of risks factors that contribute to MSI

Factor Special Information

Preventing an MSI is achieved by understanding the elements of body

The Physiological Society (2019). What is Physiology? Retrieved from

Rice University (N.D.) Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from

Rice University (N.D.) Body Mechanics. Retrieved from

A. microscopic anatomy C. regional anatomy

A. exercise physiologist C. regional physiologist

3. The following are examples of MSI, Except:

9. Known as the father of Kinesiology.

1. Name at least three reasons to study anatomy and physiology.

2. For whom would an appreciation of the structural characteristics of the human

Activity 3. Anatomy and physiology of human movement in physical education

KINESIOLOGY BODY MECHANICS

Do you have any question for clarification?

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Examine the levels of organizations of the

Figure 1 – 2. The order of levels of organizations of the human body.

Figure 1 – 3. The Hierarchy levels of organizations of the human body.

The following are the levels of organization of the body as a whole:

Combinations of atoms from larger chemical groupings, called Molecules.

Dozens of different kinds of organelles have been identified. There’s a few

• Mitochondria – the “powerhouse” of cells that provide energy needed

5. Organ Level. An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed

1. Skeletal system - consist of the bones, cartilage and ligaments that

The Physiological Society (2019). What is Physiology? Retrieved from

___4. Act as “highways” for the movement of chemicals e. Integumentary System

___7. A tiny spheres of matter so small they are invisible. i. Epithelial/Epithelium

___8. Combinations of atoms from larger chemical groupings j. Golgi Apparatus

___14. Produced when combined with other atoms and

___15. the “powerhouse” of cells that provide energy needed