“ Theories of Intelligence and

Learning Styles”
Two – factor
Theory

Supports that intelligence has two factors: a general mental

ability factor ,g, which represent what different cognitive task
have in common; plus many specific factors ,s, which include
mental abilities
 Mathematical
 Mechanical
 Verbal skills
Charles Spearman’s belief “by measuring related
cognitive factors he could measure intelligence”

- He was the first to use the psychometric approach.

Psychometric approach
 To measure or quantity cognitive abilities or factors that are thoughts
to be involved in intellectual performance.
 Two- Factor Theory
( Plotnik )

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

 It defines and measures general

intelligence which means that general  However, is that it excludes and does
intelligence can be represented by an not measure many other kinds od
IQ score. mental abilities, such as motor,
 General intelligence ,g, is a good perceptual, musical, practical, or
predictor of performance in school and creative abilities which some
academic settings and has some psychologist consider to represent other
success in predicting performance in kinds of intelligence.
certain careers.
 Multiple Intelligence Theory

Howard Gardner (1995, 1997) argues that there are different kinds of mental
abilities that make up different kinds of intelligence. He termed as multiple-
intelligence, Instead of one kind of intelligence as in g, there are at least 7 different
kinds which include:

 Verbal Intelligence
 Musical Intelligence
 Logico- mathematical Intelligence
 Spatial intelligence
 Body movement intelligence
 Intelligence to understand oneself
 Intelligence to understand others
 Multiple Intelligence Theory
(Howard Gardner)

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

Is not having standard

Is that it does not reduce
measuring technique to
intelligence to a single IQ
assess all seven kind of
score.
intelligence.
Sternberg’s Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence

● Academic performance and intelligence are so often linked

that it is easy to forget that students can display their
intelligence in a varietu of ways outside the school
environment.

Sternberg’s theory comprises three parts of subs theories (Cown

& Roop, 1992)
Experiential Intelligence
this is the ability to formulate new ideas and combine unrelated facts. A test measures
experiential intelligence if it assesses a person’s ability to deal with novel tasks in an automotive
manner . Such a task might involve remembering all words containing the Letter Tin a
paragraph.

Contextual Intelligence
it is the ability to adapt to a changing environment and the ability to shape ones world to
optimize opportunities.

Componential Intelligence
This is the ability to think abstractly and process information. A person’s ability to
determine what tasks need to be done. Task that can be used to measure the elements
of the componential subtheory are analogies, vocabulary and syllogism.
Piaget’s Dynamic View

In Piaget’s view (Cown & Roop,1992) a person’s intelligence is

dynamic, that is, it changes as a person’s interaction with his or
her environment changes.

“ an infant organizes his or her environment into sensorimotor schemata; he

or she is using sensorimotor intelligence to understand the environment.”
Wechsler’s Global View
David Wechsler made his fame as a developer of IQ tests ( Con & Rope,
1992) although he died in 1981,one of the most respected IQ test for children
remains the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised

-he developed a global view of the construct of intelligence .

- Wechsler’s global view, derived as it was from concerns about testing the
construct, suggest that a test of spatial ability, a test of mathematical
computation, or a test of verbal reasoning may tell us very little about a
students overall ability to deal with world.
Guilford’s Multifactor View
Guilford sought some ways of organizing appropriate factors into a framework. The
result of his efforts was the three faces of intellect model, which organized intellectual
capabilities along three dimensions or faces (Guilford 1967).

Five kinds of Operations

Model Structured
Four kinds of Content

Six kinds of Products

 Five Kinds of
Operations
Cognition is the operation that
refers to knowing, being award
,discovering.
Memory is the process of
Remembering ,retrieving
previously stored information.
Divergent production is the
generation of multiple responses,
solutions, hypothesis
Convergent production involves
arriving at the one correct solution
to a problem
Evaluation is the process of
making judgements.
Four Kinds of Content
Figural context refers to images,
objects or other concrete
information.
Symbolic context refers to
abstract system of codes , such
as members.
Semantic content is meaning
derived, for example ,from words
Behavioral content is information
derived from human behavior
and interaction, such a person’s
mood
Six Kinds of Products
Units are single , independent
items of information.
Classes are sets of items that
share properties
Relation are connections
between items.
Systems are ways of
organizing informations
Transforms are changes in
information
Implications are prediction,
interpolations, or
extrapolations from
information.
Learning Styles
Psychologist have been studying differences in the ways that students learn
for several decades. Some students work better than others when tasks are
highly structured. Some can study effectively with the stereo blaring; others
need quiet. Some students learn well from one particular teacher,while others
in the same class learn very little.
Extrovert- introvert

Sensory- Intuitive
4 Bipolar pairs
Thinker- Feeder

Judger- Perceiver
 Tend to react to
Convergent thinkers instructional materials in
conventional ways.
Meinke 1987
Tend to respond in
Divergent thinkers unconventional or
idiosyncratic ways.
Students tend to
Impulsive answer questions.

Students take their time

reflective ,preferring to evaluate
Kagan (1964a, alternative answer.
1964b)
Thematic Students tend to seek
the patterns of a whole

Students take greater

Analytic
note of details.
What should teachers do about the
differences in learning styles that
students bring to the classroom?
 Be aware that they exist; that they are
important contributors to the diversity
encounter in the class.

TEACHERS Analyze how student respond to various

SHOULD DO
learning tasks given them.

Allow for learning style differences by planning

a variety of learning activities.
Emotional Intelligence
The phrase “emotional intelligence” shortened to EQ was coined by Yale
psychologist Peter Salovey and the University of New Hampshire’s Jon
Mayer to describe qualities such as understanding one’s own feelings,
empathy for the feelings of others and “the regulation of emotion in away
that enhances living” (Gibbs,1999)

Dr. Daniel Goleman

- Harvard psychology Ph.D. and a New York Times science writer
- Emotional Intelligence
If there is a cornerstone to emotional intelligence on which most other
emotional skills depend, it is a sense of self-awareness, of being smart
about what we feel.A person whose day starts badly at home may be
grouchy all day at work without quite knowing why.
The ability to pull back and recognize that “ what I’m
feeling is anger,” sorrow or shame.
Metamood Self- The most crucial ability
awareness because it allows us to
exercise some self-control.
Serves a similar useful purpose as
Anxiety anger so long as it doesn’t spin out of
control.
Empathy and The most visible emotional skills , the ones
Graciousness we recognize most readily, are the” people
skills” like empathy, graciousness, the
ability to read a social situation.
The Marshmallow Test
Is an experimental design that measures a child’s ability to
delay gratification. The child is given the option of waiting a bit
to get their favorite treat, or if not waiting for it, receiving a less-
desired treat

Emotional Intelligence By Goleman

“we are not just smart by our training and

expertise, but by how well handle
ourselves and each other.
 Elements
or
hallmarks

Self-awareness Self-motivation

Self-regulation Empathy

Adeptness in Relationship
Emotional competence shows how much of that potential we have translated
into on-the-job capabilities such as being good at serving costumers and
trustworthiness. According to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and author of
several books on behavioral sciences, these are the capacities of emotionally
intelligent persons Goleman (1998).

Independent Interdependent
Hierarchical
Necessary, but not
sufficient Generic
Emotional intelligence , though partly due to innate temperament, is mainly
learned . If we bother to teach children basic emotional coaches , compared to
those with less emotional intelligence , were more relaxed biologically, more
popular, less rude and aggressive and score better on math and reading test.
Children who had courses in emotional literacy were: (Goleman 1998)

Better able to recognize their feelings and handle

their anger ,aggression, and anxiety.
Better able to control impulses and Tolerate
frustration.
More emphatic and better ,listeners .

More popular, considerate and better at resolving conflicts.

The Difference
Between IQ and
EQ

“We are not just smart by our training and expertise, but by how well we
handle ourselves and each other.”- Daniel Goleman 1988
 What is Intelligent
Quotient?

Is used to determine academic abilities and

identify individuals with off the chart
intelligent or mental challenges.

What is Emotional
Quotient?

Is defined as an individual’s ability to

identify, evaluate, control and express
emotions.
 IQ EQ
n k Abil
to t hi i ty t o
i l it y feel
Ab c h ool Gets
throu
u g h s
th r o Ca n gh fe
Gets r ned be l e el
b e e a a r ne
n o t d
Can
5 components of
ion
emotional M otiv
a t
f
Sel
quotient y
path
Em
g
dl in ip
n
Ha ionsh
e l at
r

Self- Aw
areness

i ons
mot
gE
agin
an
M
The Genes
Why are people
so different?
The life of every person begins when a sperm cell from the father penetrates the
wall of an ovum (or egg) from the mother. Each of these germ cells (sperm and
ova) contains within it chromosomes, the “carriers of heredity”.

There are 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes. When a sperm unites with an ovum, the
resulting zygote (fertilized ovum) contains the full complement of 23 complete
pairs, or 46 chromosomes.

Thus, exactly half of the zygote’s chromosomes come from the father and half
from the mother.
Chromosomes are the “carriers” of heredity only in the “transportation” sense. Each
chromosome bears many separate complex molecules called genes. And it is these
genes which are the “determiners” of inherited bodily traits.

The genes do not always stay put in their own chromosomes.

There is a phenomenon known as crossing over, which refers to the fact that
occasionally one segment of a chromosome will break off and be exchanged with a
corresponding segment from a parallel chromosome.
When an ovum becomes fertilize it multiplies by division. In the process
called mitosis – the zygote divides two daughter cell, each of which is a
complete and faithful replica of the other.

Each daughter call has within the potentialities of becoming a complete

individual – these individuals are called identical twins.

The mother may sometimes produce more than one ovum.

If she produces two and each of these is fertilized (by two different sperms, of
course) then genetically the twins are completely separate individuals and can
be expected to be no more similar than any set of brothers and sisters - they are
known as fraternal twins.
The inherited characteristics that are produced by the genes are passed
along from one generation to another unchanged (with relatively rare
exceptions).

But it is not true that experiences of adults can be passed on to his

progeny by heredity. The only things which are passed on are the genes
and they remain unchanged by life experiences.

The “rare exceptions” occur when genes themselves are changed through
some “chemical accident”, “genetic engineering” or through stimulation
by such radiant energies as x-rays and cosmic rays – these changes are
called mutations.
The Environment
Each fertilized egg carries within it hereditary determinant from
the father and the mother, and thus each zygote differs from all
other zygotes at the very moment of conception.

These differences become magnified and more easily detectable as

we grow in our mother’s womb, as we are born, and as we enter
into the activities of the outside world.

These changes, however, do not take place in a biological

organism suspended in a vacuum. From the very moment of
fertilization, through the development of the zygote, the embryo,
and the fetus, the organism is immersed in an environment which
is unique to him.
Just as it is true that each zygote differs from that of every other
zygote, so it is true that the environment of each zygote differs
from that of every other zygote.

We have known or a long time that the condition of the zygote’s

environment – the uterus – can help shape the physical
development of the offspring.

Environmental differences among organisms become far more

pronounced, of course, after birth. We, therefore, have two sets of
factors which differentiate one organism from another – heredity
and environment. And both of these play their roles from the very
moment of conception.
EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOR GENETICS
The first extensive experiment on behavior genetics was that of Tryon who
initiated the most famous selective breeding experiments with rats in 1927.

Selective breeding consists of mating animals that display certain traits,

selecting from among their off-spring those that express the trait and then
breeding their offspring.

If the trait is regulated by heredity, continued selection for a number of

generations will result in a strain that breeds more or less true for that trait.
Tryon’s results were clear. Bright maze-learners
breed bright progeny; dull maze-learners breed dull
progeny.

These animal experiments, involving carefully

controlled selective breeding and carefully controlled
environmental factors, have established beyond any
doubt that behavior traits can be inherited.

Both kinds of behavior are involved: adaptive

behavior (such as maze-learning ability), and
motivational-emotional behavior.
HUMAN BEHAVIORAL
GENETICS
Family resemblances in traits and abilities have been
investigated through the comparisons of the siblings
among identical and fraternal twins .
Identical Twins Reared Apart

Identical twins, as we have already seen are

genetically identical and, therefore, differences
in ability between one child and his identical
twin brother of sister must presumably be due to
environmental differences rather than genetic
factors.
 The most careful study of identical twins reared apart is based on twins analyzed by Newman,
Freeman, and Holzinger (1937).

From their study, difference in educational opportunity, even among genetically identical people,
can make for differences in I.Q., and the more marked the difference between the educational
advantages, the bigger is the difference in IQ’s.

In one of the twins studied, one of the twin’s girls was reared in the backwoods and had been
given only two years of formal schooling while her sister was brought up in a good farming
community and had gone through college. When these twins were tested at the age of 35 the girl
who had gone through college received an I.Q. score 24 points higher than her sister.
Identical and Fraternal Twins
The importance of hereditary factors is further brought out
by comparing the correlations in IQ scores among
identical twins with the correlations among fraternal
twins.

Almost all such comparative studies report greater

similarities in abilities between identical twins than
between fraternal twins.
 Family Resemblances
If intelligence and other abilities are inherited, we should expect
family resemblances in these traits.

However, heredity also means family differences. Both of these effects

of heredity should result in positive but not perfect correlations
between members of the same families.

Stature of people was the first measurable characteristics used to test

theories of human inheritance and for which the most extensive data
are available. The data from studies of family resemblances, then, are
also consistent with the view that intelligence test scores are
determined in large measure by heredity.
 Hereditary and Environmental
Contributions
We have also seen that environment plays its
part.

This has led to many attempts to determine

what proportion of individual variation in
intelligence is due to hereditary factors and
what proportions to environmental factors.
The Gifted
The definition of a gifted child proposed by one group of educators as a
“pupil” whose performance in a potentially valuable line of human
activity is consistently remarkable.” Witty (1952)

The characteristics and needs of children with high mental ability are
different from those of children talented in arts, mechanics, or leadership.

A child may be both intellectually gifted and talented, gifted but not
talented, or talented but not gifted. The talented need experiences directed
towards their special abilities; the gifted require a broad and varied program
directed towards their general development particularly in their early years.
 Positive Characteristics
As a group, gifted children tend to be strong and healthy,
well-adjusted, friendly, understanding, and alert. In
congenial setting, they are likely to:

Be curious as indicated by the kind, Have rich vocabularies

Seek older companions among
depth, scope, and frequency of their marked by originality of
children and enjoy adults
questions thought and expressions

Show interest in words and

ideas as demonstrated by their Enjoy reading, usually at a Have a strong desire to excel
use of dictionaries, mature level
encyclopedia, and other source
books

Have a good sense of humor and be Read rapidly and retain information Be quick to comprehend and
cheerful Follow directions easily
 NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Sometimes the presence of negative or undesirable characteristics make
it difficult to recognize children of high ability. They may be:

Restless, inattentive, disturbing, or annoying to Lackadaisical in completing or handling in

those around them, like many children who assignments, and indifferent towards classwork
have unmet needs when disinterested

Poor in spelling, careless in handwriting, or Outspokenly critical both of themselves and of

inaccurate in arithmetic because they are impatient others, an attitude which often alienates adults as
with details well as children
 Need for Enrichment Programs

While basic knowledge and skills are to be met as average and other
children do, gifted children need a rich, varied and challenging program
because they have broad and numerous interest, high level of abilities,
curiosity and insatiable desire to learn.

Gifted children are independent and resourceful workers.

But like all children, gifted children need guidance learning to get along
with people.
 The Teacher’s Role
Guiding gifted children towards effective living and learning is an important and difficult
responsibility for the teacher. The teacher must be able to capitalize on the child’s present
interests and talents but, at the same time, help him expand his interests to include less
familiar areas.

The teacher for gifted children must be a flexible person who allows the children time to
make new discoveries and freedom to try their wings. The teacher must provide
inspiration, encouragement and opportunity for them to test their potentials, to explore
and to originate.
DOWN SYNDROME
Down Syndrome is a congenital disorder
caused mainly by a cellular accident during
maternal germ-cell formation, resulting in the
production of an ovum, or egg, with an extra
chromosome, a conditioned called trisomy.

The fertilization of such an ovum and the

carrying of the fetus to term results in the birth
of a child with the syndrome.
DOWN SYNDROME
Children with down’s syndrome have
characteristic defects, including moderate to
severe mental deficiency, slow physical
development, flaccid muscles, stocky build,
short hands, flattened facial features, defective
hearts, and facial features that give the child
an Oriental appearance.

The term Mongolism as an alternative name for

Down syndrome.
LANGUAGE AND SPEECH IN CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Communication is important for children at home, in school, and in the

community. They need it to interact, to understand and be understood.
Communication includes verbal and nonverbal expressions such as smiles,
sign language and other gestures.

Although children with Down syndrome show common speech and

language problems, there is no single pattern of speech and language
common to all.
Leshin (2003) enumerates these speech and language challenges for most
children with Down syndrome:

More difficulty with expressive language than they do with

understanding speech and language, that is, receptive language Many children have difficulties with intelligibility
of speech and articulation
skills are usually more advanced than expressive language skill

Certain linguistic areas, such as vocabulary, are usually Some children have fluency problems. Some use short
phrases while others have long conversations
easier for children with Down syndrome than other areas
such as grammar;

Sequencing of sounds and of words may be difficult for many

children
All of the speech and language problems that children with Down Syndrome
demonstrate are faced by other children as well (Leshin, 2003).

There are no speech and language problems unique to children with Down
syndrome. This means that there is a great deal of knowledge and experience
that can be applied in helping a child with Down syndrome with his/her
specific areas of challenge.
BIRTH TO ONE-WORD PERIOD
During this period, the most important intervention occurs at home. Infants should
be given focus on sensory stimulation; providing activities and experiences to help
the infant develop auditory, visual and tactile skills including sensory feedback and
memory.

The child will experience what a bell sound is like, or the different sensations while
touching velvet or sandpaper. Many infants and toddlers are sensitive to touch.

Infants with Down syndrome, by 8 months to one year, have a great deal to
communicate with people around them. If they do not have some ways of
communicating their messages, young children become frustrated by their inability
to understand.
ONE-WORD TO THREE-WORD PERIOD

Once the young child begins to use single words (in sign or speech) treatment
will target horizontal as well as vertical growth in language. Treatment may
address single word vocabulary (semantic skills) in many thematic and whole
language activities such as cooking, crafts, play and trips (Kimun, et, al., 1996).

Treatment will also target increasing the length of phrases, the combination of
words that the child can use. Pragmatic skills such as making requests and
greetings as well as conversational skills would be taught during this period. Play
would also be used to increase auditory attending and or task attention skills.
ONE-WORD TO THREE-WORD PERIOD
The basis for developing speech during this period is sensory
integration (translating auditory to verbal messages) and oral
motor abilities. Most children with Down syndrome understand
messages and are able to produce language (through signs) well
before they are able to use speech. So, sensory integration and
oral motor skills therapy are used to strengthen the readiness for
speech during this period (Lesshin, 2003).
PRESCHOOL THROUGH
KINDERGARTEN
During this stage, according to Leshin, receptive language work may focus on:

 Auditory memory and or following directions, which are important skills for the early
school years
 Concept development such as colors, shapes, directions (top to bottom) prepositions
through practice, and play experiences

 Expressive language therapy include semantics, expanding then mean length of utterance,
grammatical structure (word order) and word endings (such as plural or possessive);
 PRESCHOOL THROUGH
KINDERGARTEN
 Pragmatic skills such as asking for help, appropriate use of greetings,
requests for information or answering requests as well as role playing
different activities of daily living

 Play activities such as dressing and undressing a doll, crafts activities

such as making a card, or cooking activities such as making cupcakes.
The same activity may target semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic skills,
for example, how many cupcakes should we make, what color frosting
should we use, and following the directions to make the cupcake.
PRESCHOOL THROUGH KINDERGARTEN
During this stage, sound and specific sound production would be targeted;
articulation therapy could begin. But the therapy would also include oral
motor exercises and activities on an ongoing basis to strengthen the
muscles and improve coordination of muscles. Intelligibility is the goal of
the speech component of therapy.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS
During the years in elementary school, there is a great
deal of growth in language and in speech.

Speech-language pathology may involve collaboration

with the teacher and may be based in the classroom.

Often, the curriculum becomes the material used for

therapy, both proactively, to prepare the child for the
subject and reactively, to help if problems occur. This
makes sense, because school is the child’s workplace,
and success in school greatly affects self-esteem.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS
Pragmatics becomes very important during this stage; using
communication skills in real life in school, at home, and in the
community.

As the child matures, the communicative activities of daily living

will change. Treatment and/or home practice must keep pace with
the child’s communication needs at every stage.

Speech and language treatment is complex and can include

different approaches, a variety of goals, and many different
activities. The goal is to find treatment approaches and methods
which will enable each child to reach his communication
potential.
End of Reporting

Thank you for listening!