Chapter 4:

Probability & Statistics

Section 4.1:
Counting, Factorials, Permutations & Combinations

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Fundamental Counting Principle
Many times we are presented with a multi-part event and we want – or need – to count the
total possible outcomes.
One possible way to count them is to list them all out. For example, how many different ways
can the letters A, B, C & D be arranged?
ABCD, ABDC, ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, ADCB, BACD, BADC, … There is a MUCH better way.

Fundamental Counting Principle

To find the total number of options for a multi-part event,
find the number of options for each part and multiply those numbers together.

Example: How many different ways can the letters A, B, C & D be arranged?
There are 4 choices for the first letter: A, B, C, & D.
Since one of the letters was taken for the first one, there are 3 choices for the second letter.
2 choices for the third letter, and 1 left for the last.
There are (4)(3)(2)(1) = 24 ways to arrange the letters A, B, C, & D.
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Fundamental Counting Principle - Examples
Examples: Telephone area codes are made up of 3-digit numbers.
If the first number cannot be a 1 or a 0, how many area codes are possible?
(8)(10)(10) = 800

If the first digit cannot be a 1 or a 0, the second digit can be anything except a 9, and there are
no restrictions on the last digit, how many area codes are possible?
(8)(9)(10) = 720

Example: Olive Garden offers a special lunch menu where diners choose an appetizer that is a
soup or a salad, one of six different sandwiches, and one of three different desserts. How many
different appetizer-sandwich-dessert meals are possible?
(2)(6)(3) = 36 different meals

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Factorials
The product of all the numbers from n down to 1 is called n factorial and is written n!.
n! = n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1

Example: Find 6!
6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720

Example: Simplify: 9!/6!

9!/6! = (9 × 8 × 7 × 6!)/(6!) = 9 × 8 × 7 = 504

IMPORTANT CONCEPT
0! = 1

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Permutations
  permutation is an arrangement of distinct objects. If we have a total of n objects, there are n!
A
ways to arrange them.
If we have a total of n objects and want to know how many permutations can be made from r of
them, we must divide n! by the number of arrangements of the unwanted items. The notation
for this is nPr.

The number of permutations of r objects taken from n objects.

n!
nPr =
(n - r)!

NOTE: If we are picking ALL n objects, nPn = (n!)/(n-n)! = (n!)/(0!) = n!/1 = n!.

Example: In how many different ways can we have first, second and third place (called win, place
and show) be determined in an 8-horse race?
8P3 = = = 336

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Combinations
A
  combination is simply a collection of objects, where the order of the objects does not matter.
If we have a total of n objects and want to make a combination out of r of them, the number of
ways to do this is nCr. To find nCr, we start with the number of permutations, and then divide by
the duplicates. Since we are picking r objects, and there are r! ways to pick them, there are r!
duplicates.

The number of combinations of r objects taken from n objects.

n!
nCr =
(n - r)!r!
NOTE: If we pick of ALL n objects: nCn = n!/((n-n)!n!) = n!/(0!n!) = 1.

Example: In a class of 10 students, in how many ways can 3 students be chosen to give a
presentation?
10C3 = = = = = 120

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Permutations vs. Combinations
The hardest part about working with permutations and combinations is determining which one
to use - based on the description of the situation.

Certain key words can help us decide.

• arrangement, order = Permutation
• choose, select, pick = Combination

If order matters, we have a permutation. If not, it is a combination.

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