FUELS FROM CRUDE

OIL (PETROLEUM)
 A brief history of fossil fuels

• Here today, gone tomorrow

• What will our future hold?
– Will it be back to a simple life?
– Or will we find new ways to produce all the
energy we want?
– Or will it be somewhere in the middle
Fossil Fuels are the most
common energy source, but what
IS a fossil fuel?

• A hydrocarbon deposit, such as

petroleum, coal, or natural gas,
derived from living matter of a
previous geologic time and used
for fuel.
Availability of Fossil Fuels

Over half of
the fossil fuels
in the world
are consumed
by the US,
China and
European
Union …
countries that
are considered
“advanced.”
 What are the different types of
Fossil Fuels?

COAL

OIL

NATURAL GAS
COAL

• A combustible black or brownish-black

sedimentary rock composed mostly of
carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the MOST
ABUNDANT fossil fuel in the US.
COAL Formation Takes a LONG Time
 Mining Coal: 2 Methods
• Surface Mining – Method 1
– Least expensive method.
– Used when coal is less than 200 ft below the surface.
– Topsoil layers are removed and then REPLACED
after coal layer has been extracted, allowing for the
area to be re-planted or used for other natural sites.
– In the US, it is mandatory that land be returned as
closely as possible as was its original state prior to
coal removal.
Surface Mining of Coal Removes
Land From Agriculture Production
 COAL MINING Method 2:
Underground Mining
• Also called Deep Mining, used when deposits
are between 200ft and 1,000ft deep.
• Elevators must be used to haul machinery and
personnel.
• Expensive process, includes much specialized
machinery.
• Risk of cave-ins and suffocation hazards.
COAL Mining Operations are Hazardous,
Especially Deep Mining.
COAL Must Be Processed to
Increase the Heating Value and
Allow for Cleaner Burning

• Common impurities are removed :

– Rocks
– Ash
– Sulfur
– Dirt
– Other unwanted materials
THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF COAL
WE USE FOR FUEL
Burning COAL = Pollution

• Nearly 50% of the nitrogen oxide

(NOx) in the atmosphere and 70%
of sulfur dioxide are direct result
of emissions released when coal is
burned.

• These are directly responsible for

crop failures from “acid rain”
formation
 Human Health Issues Surround
Coal Mining and its Use
• Workers can contract
lung diseases, skin
diseases and ulcers
from coal dust and
other impurities mined.
• Burning coal produces
huge amounts of smog,
also related to illness.
Coal

• Coal is a nasty fuel that we seem to have a lot of

• Primarily carbon, but some volatiles (CO, CH4)
• Reaction is essentially C + O2  CO2 + energy
• Energy content varies depending on quality of coal,
ranging from 4–7 Cal/g
• Highly undesirable because of large amounts of ash,
Sulphur dioxide, arsenic, and other pollutants
• Also ugly to remove from the ground
Formation of coal
Organic matter derived mostly from land
plants accumulates in low-energy
environment (like a swamp).

Oxidative decay uses up lots of oxygen,

rendering the sediment pore waters devoid
of oxygen (anoxic).

Gentle cooking and pressing (lithification)

as a result of increasing burial depth remove
the pore water and increase carbon content
(due to release of volatile components of the
organic molecules).

Low grade coal (lignite) cooked very little.

High grade coal (anthracite) cooked a lot
(close to being a metamorphic rock).

Lower grade coal tends to contain minerals

such as pyrite, which formed under the
reducing (low-oxygen) conditions.
 Uses of Coal

Fuel: Coal is a very important fuel throughout Asia and

remains highly significant in the U.S.A, this country having
the largest known coal reserves in the world.

Coke: Bituminous coal that is cooked (charred) to remove

nearly all of the remaining volatiles is transformed into a
spongy substance called coke (some of the removed
gases, e.g. methane, can themselves be used as fuel).

Coke is predominantly burned in blast furnaces to smelt

iron from iron ore because it provides the high temperature
and gases required for the smelting process (prevents
oxidation of the elemental molten iron). It is also used in
the production of cement (cooking of limestone and silica).
Byproducts: A number of by-products from processed coal are also useful.
These include organic substances used to make some plastics, medicines,
and solvents.

Artificial sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame are also derived from
by-products of coal !

Aspartame Aspartame products

 Coal types and composition kJ/g

Natural
Graphite fixed carbon 34

Anthracite ash 29

Bituminous 35

Bituminous 31
sub-
bituminous 27

Lignite 25

Peat moisture content 21

Wood volatile matter 20

Estimated Worldwide Coal Reserves

Country Amount Percentage

(109 tonne) of Total
United States 250* 25
Russia 230† 23
Europe 138 14
China 115 12
Australia 82 8.3
Africa 55 5.6
South America 22 2.2
North America 7.7 0.8
Total 984 100
Shale Oil

• Possibly 600–2000 billion barrels of oil in U.S. shale

deposits
– compare to total U.S. oil supply of 230 billion bbl
• Economically viable portion may only be 80 billion bbl
• 8 times less energy density than coal
– lots of waste rock: large-scale disposal problem
• Maximum rate of extraction may be only 5% of our
current rate of oil consumption
– limited by water availability: requires 3 as much water
as oil
– contaminated process water is an issue
Tar Sands

• Sand impregnated with viscous tar-like sludge

• Huge deposit in Alberta, Canada
– 300 billion bbl possibly economically recoverable
– update: 2007 estimate from Alberta Energy at 133 Gbbl
• It takes two tons of sands to create one barrel of oil
– energy density similar to that of shale oil
• In 2003, 1 million bbl/day produced
– grand hopes for 3 Mbbl/day; or 4% of world oil production
– current rate is up to 1.3 Mbbl/day
• Production cost is about $30 per barrel, so economically
competitive
 Coal Classification

■ There are two main ways for classifying

coal - by rank and by type.
■ Coal Rank
■ Coal Types
■ Coal Rank : The degree of 'metamorphism'
or coalification undergone by a coal, as it
matures from peat to anthracite
■ This has an important bearing on its
physical and chemical properties, and is
referred to as the 'rank' of the coal.
 Coal Classification

• Low rank coals, such as lignite and sub-bituminous coals, are typically
softer, friable materials with a dull, earthy appearance; they are
characterized by high moisture levels and a low carbon content, and hence
a low energy content.
• Higher rank coals are typically harder and stronger and often have a black
vitreous luster.
Finding Oil

1. Oil is trapped in special (rare) geological

structures
2. Most of the oil in the world comes from a few
large wells
3. About one in ten exploratory drillings strike
oil and this in places known to be oil-rich: get
nothing in most of world
The Oil Window

■ Organic material must be deposited without decomposing

– oxygen-poor environment: usually underwater with poor flow
■ Material must spend time buried below 7,500 feet of rock
– so that molecules are “cracked” into smaller sizes
■ But must not go below 15,000 feet
– else “cracked” into methane: gas, but no oil
■ So there is a window from 7,500 to 15,000 feet
■ Additional circumstances must be met
– existence of “caprock” to keep oil from escaping: even a drop per second
depletes 20 million barrels per million years
– source rock must be porous and permeable to allow oil flow
■ Oil is not in underground lakes—more like soaked sponges
 Crude Oil Classification

PETROLEUM
Saturates Asphaltics
n-alkanes C5 - C44 nitrogen
branched alkanes
Aromatics oxygen containing compounds
cycloalkanes (napthenes) single ring sulfur
condensed ring

API Gravity = 35o

The Uses of Crude Oil
CRUDE Petroleum delivered from well field

DESALTING Water washing to remove impurities

Distillation to separate by boiling point ranges

REFINING

REFORMING Conversion reactions to alter molecular structures

Mixing to obtain maximum commercial

BLENDING characteristics
 Petroleum Refining
C1-C4
GAS bp < 50 oF

T LIGHT NAPHTHA
C5 - C?
bp 50-200oF

O HEAVY NAPHTHA
C? - C12
bp 200-400oF
W
C12 - C16
E KEROSENE
bp 400-500oF
CRUDE DESALTER FURNACE
R ATM. GAS OIL C15 - C18
bp 500-650oC

> C20
RESIDUUM
bp >650oF

Distillation – separation by boiling point

 Petroleum Reforming
GAS FUEL GAS

T LIGHT NAPHTHA TREATER

O HEAVY NAPHTHA HYDROTREATER REFORMER AROMATIC

GASOLINE

W EXTRACTION
AROMATICS
E KEROSENE HYDROTREATER
JET FUELS/KEROSENE

R ATM. GAS OIL HYDROTREATER CATALYTIC

CRACKER DIESEL & FUEL OILS

RESIDUUM
CATALYTIC
VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKER
Vacuum LUBRICATING OIL
Distillation
ASPHALT

COKER COKE
 Formation of petroleum (oil and gas)
Oil and gas result from the breakdown of
organic molecules (e.g. kerogens) under
conditions of increasing temperature, from
large complex molecules to smaller,
shorter-chain molecules dominated by
hydrogen and carbon: a process called
“cracking” or “pyrolysis”. This occurs
largely through the breaking of C-C bonds.

“Oil window”
Some gas is produced by decomposition of
organic matter by microbes (biogenic gas)

Most oil is produced at temperatures

between about 60O and 120O C (the oil
window).

Thermogenic gas is produced as oil is

broken down to very small molecules
(the smallest being methane)
The Oil Window
T below: Organics remain largely unaltered.
T above: Thermal cracking transforms the
petoleum into natural gas.
The hydrocarbons

• All fossil fuels are essentially hydrocarbons, except coal, which

is mostly just carbon
• Natural Gas is composed of the lighter hydrocarbons (methane
through pentane)
• Gasoline is hexane (C6) through C12
• Lubricants are C16 and up
Composition of Coals
■ The natural constituents of coal can be divided into two
groups:
(i) the organic fraction, which can be further subdivided
into microscopically identifiable macerals; and
(ii) the inorganic fraction, which is commonly identified
as ash subsequent to combustion, but which may be
isolated in the form of mineral matter by low-
temperature ashing (LTA).
■ The organic fraction can be further subdivided on the basis
of its rank or maturity.
Characteristics of Coal

■ Sulfur Content : Coal with sulfur > 5% is not

recommended for combustion.
■ Weatherability : Weathering or Slacking Index .
■ An indication of size stability.
■ Denotes the tendency to break on exposure to alternate
wet and dry periods.
■ Weathering index is the percentage of coal passing
through a sieve having 170 mm2 openings.
Characteristics of Coal

■ Grindability Index : A measure of relative ease of grinding

coals or the power required for grinding coals in a
pulverizer.
■ G = 6.93 W + 13
where:
W is the weight of sample passing through 200 mesh
size.
Burning Characteristics of Coal :
■Free burning coals and Caking Coals.
■Caking index -- Pulverulent, sintered, weakly caked, caked
and strongly caked.
■Ash Fusion temperature -- The temperature where the ash
becomes very plastic.
■Design of ash handling system. -- Stoker furnace cannot use
low ash fusion temperature coals.
■Dirtiness of furnace walls.
 Hydrocarbon Reactions

■ For every pound of fuel you burn, you get about three
times that in CO2
– one gallon of gasoline  ~20 pounds of CO2
– occupies about 5 cubic meters (1300 gallons) of space
 Carbohydrate Reactions
• Less energy than hydrocarbons because one oxygen
already on board (half-reacted already)
• For every pound of food you eat, exhale 1.5 lbs CO2
– Actually lose weight this way: 0.5 to 1.0 lbs per day in carbon
– Must account for “borrowed” oxygen mass and not count it
Formation of Oils & Gas
Theory of Oil Formation
■ The most popular theory is known as the Organic Theory.
■ This theory states that oil and gas have zoological origins.
■ Small sea creatures from the days when the earth was mostly covered
in water died and settled to the bottom of the ocean floor.
■ Layer upon layer of silt, sand and clay built up on top of them over
time.
■ Through the process of decay, as well as ever increasing heat and
pressure, the former sea creatures were converted to oil and gas.
■ Over millions of years, continuous pressure actually compressed those
layers of silt and clay into layers of rock.
■ This is known as "reservoir rock".
■ The temperature under the earth's surface increases the deeper you go
underground.
■ At about 600C, oil begins to form.
■ Oil formation ceases at about 1500 C.
■ Oil formed at lower temperatures (i.e. closer to the surface) is called
immature and is heavy.
Petroleum refining : Basic refinery processes

Functions of Refinery Units:

(1) separating the many types of Hydrocarbon present in crude oils into
fractions of more closely related properties,
(2) chemically converting the separated hydrocarbons into more
desirable reaction products, and
(3) purifying the products of unwanted elements and compounds.

Types of Distillation:
Fractional Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Super fractionation
Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
So where does our petroleum go?

■ Each barrel of crude oil goes

into a wide variety of
products
■ Most goes into combustibles
■ Some goes to lubricants
■ Some goes to pitch and tar
■ Some makes our plastics

■ 35−40% of our energy

comes from petroleum
Who’s got the crude oil resources?
Oil in the World (older data)
Country Prod Reserves No. Prod. years left
(Mbbl/day) (Gbbl) Wells
Saudi Arabia 9.03 262.7 1,560 80
Russia 7.98 69.1 41,192 24
U.S. 5.73 29.4 521,070 14
Iran 3.74 130.7 1,120 96
China 3.41 23.7 72,255 19
Mexico 3.34 16.0 13
Norway 2.86 10.1 833 10
U.A.E. 2.35 97.8 114
Canada 2.24 16.9 54,061 21
Kuwait 2.18 96.5 790 121
How long will the world oil supply last?

■ Not as long as you might think/hope

■ Will be spent before the century is done, but we’ll have to
scale down oil usage before then (in the next few
decades)
Discovery must lead production

■ There must be a lag between the finding of oil and delivery to market
■ In the U.S., discovery peaked around 1950, production peaked in
1970
Various Estimates of Oil Remaining

■ To date, we’ve used about 1000 billion barrels of oil worldwide

■ We seem to have about this much left
– halfway through resource
■ There will be some future discovery still, but not likely any new Saudi
Arabia
Boiling range, and molecule size for typical
refinery

BOILING RANGE # CARBON ATOMS

■ Refinery Gas <25 oC 3
■ Gasoline 40-150 oC 4-10
■ Naptha 150-200 oC 10-12
■ Kerosene 200-300 oC 12-16
■ Diesel Fuel 300-400 oC 16-25
■ Residual Oil >400 oC >25
Properties of Petroleum Derivatives

■ Specific Gravity
■ Calorific Value
■ Viscosity
■ Flash Point
■ Fire Point
■ Pour Point
■ Volatility
■ Ash content
■ Carbon Residue
■ Octane Number / Cetane Number / Performance Number
Specific Gravity
■ Specific Gravity = (Weight of fuel/unit volume)/(weight of water/unit
volume at 15oC)

■ API Gravity = 141.5/(SG15.6/15.6oC) - 131.5

■ Significance of SG: Origin of the fuel Combustion characteristics

■ A high API G : Paraffin fuel with good ignition quality; low c/H ratio.
■ A high API G : aromatic asphaltic fuel with poor combustion
characteristics
■ API G < 10 : Difficult or impossible to separate-out water and solid.
■ Good quality paraffin straight run fuels : 35 -- 40 (API G)
■ Aromatic fuels : 27 -- 30
•Ash content: Amount of totally non combustible products.
Contaminants such as dirt, sand, rust and scales.
•Solid ash forming compounds can cause
–Severe abrasive wear in IC engines cylinder liners.
–High temperature slagging in fire tubes and super heater tubes.
–Blade deposition on gas turbine blades.
■ Viscosity: Kinematic viscosity (Centi Stokes) and Dynamic viscosity
(Centidynes).

■ Design of burners/ IC engine injectors.

■ Decreases with increasing temperature but becomes constant at 12 0oC
■ Heating of fuel helps in atomization.
■ Maximum viscosity for easy atomization in commercial burners : 25
stokes.
■ For easy pumping 1200 stokes.
■ Diesel fuels : Low viscosity causes exessive leakage.
■ High viscosity produces coarse drops. -- results in formation of engine
deposits -- incomplete combustion.

■ VISCOSITY IS NOT AN PROPORTIONATE PROPERTY.

Gaseous Fuels
■ Can be easily piped into furnace -- no physical handling is required.
■ Natural Gas -- True Fossil fuel
■ Odorless and colorless
■ Mainly CH4 + heavier HCs
■ HHV = 55,000 kJ/kg.

Manufactured Gases
■ LPG -- light distillates of petroleum. -- Heavier than air!!!
Stored and transported under pressure (0.4 -- 2 Mpa).
■ SNG : Produced from coal by Hydrogenation -- cheap and clean..
■ Pressurized Hydrogen at 9000C is combined with coal to produce a number
of light HCs.

■ Producer gas, Bio-gas, Water gas, Coke-oven gas etc….

Another Important Fossil Fuel is OIL

• Oil is derived from Petroleum, the definition

of which is : a thick, flammable, yellow-to-
black mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid
hydrocarbons that occurs naturally beneath the
earth's surface, can be separated into fractions
including natural gas, gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, fuel and lubricating oils, paraffin
wax, and asphalt and is used as raw material
for a wide variety of derivative products.
How OIL is Formed
Where Do We Get Today’s OIL?

• Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and

is usually found in underground areas called
reservoirs (crude oil = petroleum).
• The top 5 OIL-producing nations are Saudi Arabia,
USSR, USA, Iran, China.
• 58% of the crude oil used for fuel and products in
the US is imported from other nations.
• The top 5 oil-producing states are Texas, Alaska,
California, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.
 Why is OIL in such Demand?

• Here’s a partial list of what oil is currently

used for:

• Cooling, computers, fertilizer, feedstocks, heating,

adhesives, paint, plastics, clothing, building materials,
medicine, trucks, cars, tractors, fencing, tools, rope,
diesel, gasoline, solvents, lubricants, laboratory
materials, colognes, detergents, and much, much more
… (you are probably wearing oil-related products right now!)
Why Do We Need So Much OIL?

• The world population has been steadily increasing,

more people means greater energy demand.
• Several countries are achieving higher levels of
development today, more building and transportation
means greater demand for energy.
• Oil is an extremely versatile fuel, it can be transformed
into many other products.
• Oil-derived fuels (such a gasoline) burn easily, burn
HOT, and the current transportation industry is
designed to use it nearly exclusively.
Oil Must be Drilled from Deep Within
the Earth

• Drilling “Rigs” are constructed

both on land and in the ocean to
dig into oil reservoirs and search
for new oil deposits.

• Working these rigs can be very

hazardous, safety is a major
concern since any petroleum
found is under pressure and
highly flammable.
 Drilling Rigs

• Land-based rigs are smaller

and more numerous than
offshore.
• Smaller crews are needed to
operate (usually 5–8 workers).
• Fairly easily moved from
place to place.
 Drilling Rigs

• Offshore rigs are much

larger and more expensive to
build.
• Larger crews are needed to
operate (usually 25-40 workers).
• Extremely hard to move
from place to place.
 Once the Petroleum Deposit is Found, the
“Crude” Must be Pumped and Transported

• “Pump jacks” move the

crude up from the well
into pipelines and storage
tanks.
• Other stations pump the
oil to larger tanks or
waiting barges.
• Crude is taken to refinery
for production into fuel.
Petroleum Must First be REFINED to derive Oil,
Gas, and other Fuels!

• Refineries are tremendously expensive operations.

• Petroleum (crude) is carefully heated to specific temps, and the fumes are collected
and cooled back into liquid form (condensates).
• Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc, all are products of various fume-collection and
distillation.
• The danger of explosions is constant and extreme.
• A typical refinery can process 500,000gal of petroleum per day.
 Oil and natural gas

• Oil and natural gas, consisting of various

hydrocarbon compounds, are produced in a similar
manner though are typically derived from different
sources of organic remains.
• Derived from the remains of marine plants and
animals (mostly plankton).
• Oil and natural gas result from the chemical
breakdown of these remains in the absence of
oxygen, as depth of burial (and therefore
temperature) increases.
• The oxygen and nitrogen in the original organics are
driven off, leaving hydrocarbon compounds
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen).
Natural Gas – Another Fossil Fuel

• Fossil Fuel, formed similarly oil, found in

petroleum.
• Removed from Earth by drilling, the
pressure is usually sufficient to allow it
flow to the surface.
• Colorless, odorless gas with a simple
chemical structure (CH4)
• 24% of the world’s energy is derived by
burning natural gas.
 Natural Gas and Oil are Both
Retrieved by Drilling
• Both Natural Gas and Oil
are often found along
smaller faults deep within
the Earth.
• Coastal and northern
Louisiana is abundant with
natural gas reserves.
• Louisiana is one of the top
5 natural gas-producing
states in the US.
 Natural Gas (cont’d)

• Used in homes, businesses, industry, vehicles

and power plants.
• Consumption is expected to rise by 50% by
2025.
• Since it is colorless and odorless, a scent is
added to it for safety purposes – called a
“mercaptan” – giving it a sulfur-based, rotten-
egg type smell that cannot be removed.
Natural Gas – different forms
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is an alternative fuel
for gas and diesel engines, is stored in tanks similar to
acetylene.
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is used in large-scale
industry. Cooled to -260F, it is now being used as a
fuel for trucking and ocean-going vessels.
• CNG and LNG Only accounts for 4% of natural gas
consumption worldwide.
Hydrogen-Enriched Natural Gas

• A blend of natural gas and hydrogen,

usually 12% H and 80% NG.
• Can reduce emissions of Nitrogen Oxides
by 30-50% without affecting the
performance of regular natural gas engines.
• These 2 fuels come mainly from domestic
supplies, lessening the US’s dependency on
foreign countries.
 Natural Gas by-product …
PROPANE
• Fuel that is easily stored in
pressurized tanks.
• Used as fuel for cooking,
transportation.
• Also a by-product of oil
refining.
• Burns cleaner than gasoline
or diesel.
Fossil Fuels Pose Problems

• Coal, Oil and Natural Gas products are

extremely widespread, and in higher demand
each passing day.
• Supplies will eventually be depleted.
• Use of these products are filling landfills,
polluting land, rivers, lakes, oceans, and air.
• Oil spills are common, on average, 12 spills
over 1000 gallons each occur every day.
DRILLING
• Disrupts Earth’s natural strata
• Threat of producing sinkholes
• Possibility of water
contamination

OIL SPILLS
• Destroy environment
• Kills Wildlife
• Expensive to clean-up
Oil Spills Pose Dangers

• Environment is damaged, usually coastline

wildlife losses are high.
• Most of the oil is never recovered (usually
only 10-20%) can be salvaged.
• Oil sinks to seafloor, killing important
decomposers, natural balance is interrupted.
• Oil is eventually decomposed by marine
organisms, however, it could enter the food
chain of ocean wildlife, possible human
contamination threat.
Spills Don’t Just Occur in Oceans
• Land spills can occur from the thousands of land-based
rigs, pump-jacks, storage containers, refineries, and
transport vehicles.
• Spills on agricultural-producing land and irrigation
sources usually result in costly clean-up and
containment procedures.
• Often spills can alter the land’s ability to produce,
rendering the soil unusable for decades or longer.
• To report an oil spill, contact the EPA at (800) 424-
8802
Land Spills Can Be Devastating and
Permanent!
Leaking Oil Tank Damage

Wheat crop fails to grow where Oil

Production rig once stood – 30 yrs ago

Sludge pits, storage tanks, fuel tank leaks, as

well as numerous waste products from oil and
gas production can devastate the soil’s ability
to grow marketable crops in the US.
 Pipeline Right-of-Ways

• Areas where
pipelines are buried
cannot be used to
grow crops.
• Strips of land are
usually of
considerable length.
• Blowouts can occur.
 Drilling for Petroleum Demands Extreme
Safety Measures

• As more workers
are needed for
increased
supplies, an
increase in
injuries can be
expected if safety
measures are not
strictly enforced.
Burning Petroleum Products Produces
Immense Amounts of Air Pollution

• Smog

• Human Illness

• Crop failures

• Acid Rain
Acid Rain (an Agricultural Threat) Explained
via Diagram:
Acid Rain Damage is Already Occurring

• To see a better depiction of the acid rain cycle, click HERE

What Threat Does Acid Rain Pose?
• Calcium, a necessary element for soil filtration, is
depleted by acid rain.
• The loss of calcium can harm plant growth and result
in plant die-offs.
• Heavy metals (such as aluminum) can be absorbed by
plants due to calcium depletion, resulting in
diminished growth rates and plant die-offs.
• Aluminum has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease in
humans.
• Research also links acid rain to climate changes.
Another Energy Source From Underground,
but not from Fossils
• As you recall, Fossil fuels are NON-renewable, and
are found beneath the Earth’s crust.
• Fossil fuels do not burn clean.

• Uranium is also mined from beneath the Earth’s crust,

and by controlling a reaction called “fission”,
tremendous heat can be achieved.
• Supplies are limited, but the energy it can create burns
much cleaner than fossil fuels.
Natural Gas

• Conventionally, extracted as oil-drilling byproduct

– was once burned off at well head as means of disposal
• Mostly methane, some ethane, and a little propane, butane
• Well-suited to on-the-spot heat generation: water heaters,
furnaces, stoves/ovens, clothes dryers
– more efficient than using fossil-fuel-generated electricity
• Currently ~4 times cheaper than electricity per energy
content, 3× cheaper than gasoline per joule
– volatile price history
• Hydraulic Fracturing (“fracking”) changing scene
Uses of Natural Gas

■ Mostly for industrial processes

■ Electricity generation climbing fast
■ Transportation dragging along at the bottom
Distribution of natural gas

• Impractical to ship: must route by pipe

• 1.3 million miles of pipe (250,000 miles of mains)
 Petroleum Traps
• A geologic environment that allows for economically
significant amounts of oil and gas to accumulate underground is
termed an oil/petroleum trap

• Oil and gas is contained in a reservoir. A reservoir must be

permeable to oil and gas, and contain sufficient interconnected
pore space to accommodate the petroleum. Common examples
are poorly lithified sandstones, carbonate reefs, diagenetic
carbonates.

• The roof of the trap must be made of material that is

impermeable to fluids. This is necessary to prevent the upward
escape of oil and gas which are much less dense than the
surrounding rock.

• Common traps include anticline fold traps, fault-bounded traps

(structural traps) as well as various stratigraphic traps.
 Oil traps occur in many forms

Anticline fold
trap
In all of these cases:

1. oil and gas

accumulates in a
restricted area and
the top of the
permeable Fault-bounded
reservoir rock unit trap
is sealed by an
impermeable
caprock

Stratigraphic
trap
 Recovery of Oil and Gas

When the cap rock is penetrated by

drilling, the oil and natural gas,
under pressure, migrate from the
pore spaces of the reservoir rock
to the drill hole.

Note: world’s first commercial oil well

was drilled in 1858 at Oil Springs,
Ontario (near Sarnia).

Before methods were developed to

control the upward flow of oil in
wells (e.g. blowout preventers),
dangerous gushers took place
when pressure was suddenly
released from oil traps.
 Distillation of crude oil
Oil is extracted from the ground as
crude oil.

It is then refined in a distillation tower

that is divided into a series of collecting
trays at different temperature conditions.

The crude oil is boiled to produce vapor.

The vapor is allowed to diffuse up the

tower to cool and condense at different
temperatures (lightest compounds will
have lowest boiling temps).

The different components of crude oil

can therefore be separated.

Note: the “naptha” fraction is basically

gasoline.
 Fractions obtained from crude oil

Fractions that condense in each tray are extracted and used for different
purposes.

The smallest (lightest; at top) hydrocarbon molecules are used as gases.

Intermediate hydrocarbon molecules are used in liquid form.
Largest (heaviest; at bottom) hydrocarbon molecules as used as solids (e.g. tar).
 The Versatility of Petroleum

The most obvious use for petroleum is as fuel. Lots of petroleum is used as
fuel for heating, transportation, cooking, and electricity generation.
 The Versatility of Petroleum
…But petroleum-derived organic molecules are also used in an
incredible number of other products that include:

Solvents, used in paints,

lacquers, and printing
inks, and cleaners

Lubricating oils and

greases for machinery

Petroleum (or paraffin)

wax used in candy
making, candles,
packaging, matches, and
polishes
 Petroleum jelly
(Vaseline), used in
medical products and
toiletries

Asphalt, used to pave

roads and airfields and to
make roofing materials
and floor coverings

Plastics and synthetic

rubber, used in
packaging, casings,
fabrics, bubble gum, etc.

…and many more !

Fossil Fuels and Global Warming

• Burning these fuels produce excessive

amounts of greenhouse gases (CO2)
• Failing to reduce these emissions may likely
cause our global climate to change … and if it
changes, agriculture will definitely change.
 Thermal Depolymerization

• Process was invented in the mid 1990’s.

• Uses heat (steam) and pressure to convert existing
trash into short-chain hydrocarbons, used as fuels.
• During the process, all disease-producing
organisms are destroyed.
• In 2003 a full-scale plant went into operation in
Carthage, Missouri, more are being constructed.