COAL AND PETROLEUM (G5) Color Conchoidal Factor

COAL- A dark brown to black sedimentary rock Hardness Luster

mostly composed of solid organic materials and Density Streak
lesser mineral matter that came from plant remains
that were transformed into solid rock due to intense Porosity Ash
heat and pressure overtime.
Chemical Properties:
COAL FORMED
-Primary Elements: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
•Plants died in swamps Hydrogen, and Sulfer
•Over million of years, the plants buried under water -May contain: silica, alumina, Iron, Calcium,
and dirt. Sodium, and Potassium
•Heat and pressure turns the plants into coal. ADVANTAGES OF COAL
TYPES OF COAL •Electricity Generation- Coal is burned to produce
electricity by a vast amount.
1. Peat
•Industry- Indsutrial use of coal and coal
- Peat Moss or Not Coal byproducts, like coke.
-Partly decayed vegetation that has undergone small •Gasification and Liquefaction- Coal is remade to
carbonization. either a gaseous or liquid form to be transported
-An effective environmental barrier against flooding. easily and used differently.

2. Lignite DISADVANTAGES OF COAL

-Brown Coal or Rosebud Coal Mining- Coal mines ruins the landscape and is a
health hazard for miners
-25 - 35%
Environmental Effect- Due to mining and coal
-Lowest quality burning, the nearby environment is affected heavily
- Commonly used for creating electricity Pollution- Classified as an environmental effect and
the most impactful
3. Sub Bituminous
Pollutants: Sulfuric Acid, Iron Sulfate, Sulfur Oxide,
-Brown coal
Nitrogen Oxide, Nitric Acid, Fly Ash, Carbon Dioxide.
- 45% Carbon
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF COAL
-Used as fuel to produce electricity
-Coal is a fossil fuel that has been formed over
4. Bituminous millions of years from the remains of plants that lived
and died in ancient swamps and forests.
-Bitumen
-The earliest coal deposits were primarily located in
-45 - 86% Carbon what is now Europe and North America. The
-Smithing coal, cannel coal, and coking coal United Kingdom, in particular, is well known for its
early coal mining history, with coal mines dating
5. Anthracite back to the 13th century.
-High quality
-97% Carbon LARGEST PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS OF
COAL
-Utilized in furnaces, stoves and water filtering.
Producers:
Local: Semirara Mining and Power Corporation
PROPERTIES OF COAL
International: China, India, Indonesia, USA,
Physical Properties: Australia
Consumers: •Medium weight liquids; kerosene and distillates,
stay in the middle of the distillation tower.
Local: Power, Cement and Other Industries
•Heavier liquids, called gas oils; separate lower
International: China, India, USA, Japan, Indonesia, down in the distillation tower, and the heaviest
South Africa fractions with the highest boiling points settle at the
bottom of the tower.

PETROLEUM- is a complex mixture of 2. Conversion

hydrocarbons that can be found as liquid, gas and
solid on earth. Also refers to natural gas and the solid
or viscous form known as bitumen, which is found in
tar sands.
TYPES OF PETROLEUM
1. Gasoline- Gasoline is a fuel made from crude oil
and other petroleum liquids.
2. Kerosene- is a petroleum-derived liquid
hydrocarbon that is flammable.
3. Fuel Oil- Long hydrocarbon chains, including
cycloalkanes, aromatics, and alkanes, make up this
mixture.
4. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) - is liquid natural
gas that has been cooled for convenient and secure
non-pressurized storage or transportation.
5. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) – is a mixture of
butane and propane liquefied gases.
6. Diesel- Diesel fuel offers more power and miles
per gallon due to its thickness compared to gasoline.
- After distillation, heavy, lower-value distillation
fractions can be processed further into lighter,
higher-value products such as gasoline. At this point
in the process, fractions from the distillation units are
transformed into streams (intermediate
components) that eventually become finished
products.
-The most widely used conversion method is
called cracking because it uses heat, pressure,
catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to crack heavy
hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.
3. Treatment
- The finishing touches occur during the final
treatment. To make gasoline, refinery technicians
carefully combine a variety of streams from the
processing units.
USES OF PETROLEUM
Transportation Pharmaceutical

REFINING PROCESS OF PETROLEUM Agriculture Power Generation

-Refining breaks crude oil down into its various PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
components, which are then selectively reconfigured Chemical Properties:
into new products.
•Liquid Petroleum- known as “crude oil” to
1. Separation distinguish it from “refined oil.”
Petroleum refineries are complex and expensive •Natural Gas- the lighter fractions of hydrocarbons,
- Modern separation involves piping crude oil can be free or dissolved
through hot furnaces. The resulting liquids and •Asphalt, Tar, Pitch - solid or semi solid forms of
vapors are discharged into distillation units. Inside hydrocarbons, the heavy fraction.
the distillation units, the liquids and vapors separate
into petroleum components, called fractions, Physical Properties:
according to their boiling points.
Density Color
Heavy fractions are on the bottom and light fractions
are on the top Specific Gravity Optical Activity

•The lightest fractions; gasoline and liquefied Volume Odor

refinery gases, vaporize and rise to the top of the Viscosity Boiling Point
distillation tower, where they condense back to
liquids. Refractive Index
ADVANTAGES OF PETROLEUM
•Easy to transport and extract- Petroleum is in a
liquid state during extraction and transportation,
hence, easier to transport.
•Wide variety of uses- Petroleum is a material
used: to fuel motor vehicle; manufacture products;
and electricity generation.
•Can produce large amount of energy- Petroleum
is a highly dense fuel source. 300ml = 1kWh of
electricity.
•Stability- Petroleum is a fuel source that is
accessible at all times as long as reserves are not
depleted.
DISADVANTAGES OF PETROLEUM
•Pollutants and Environmental Effects:
Significance Effect in Green houses gases-
Petroleum, when refined, emits greenhouse gasses
that affects the environment.
Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide- Upon using
petrol, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2), which results to acid rain and smog.
Oil spill- Transportation of petroleum may result to
oil spills that affects marine life.
•Effects on living things:
Disturbance in ecosystem and risk of obtaining
petroleum- There are risks in acquiring and refining
petroleum, not only that, it also harms the
ecosystem, thus affecting both humans and animals.
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM
Ancient Civilization – Petroleum was already
present and used by Ancient Civilizations such as
the Assyrians, Sumerians, Egyptians, and
Babylonians. Moreover, with Persians and Arabs,
with their unique utilization of the material.
19TH to 20TH century- The first drilled oil well
became the start of the modern oil era, where it
shifted its focus on automobile, heating homes, and
cooking applications.
LAREST PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS OF
PETROLEUM
Producers:
Local- Galoc in Palawan, Alegria in Cebu
International- USA, Saudi Arabia, Russia
Consumers:
Local- Transportation, Service, Industry
International- USA, China, India
PETROLOGY AND ROCKS (G6)
•Petrology- Petrology is a study of rocks
(Petro=rocks; and logos=study) Petrology is that
branch of geology which deals with the study of
rocks, with their mode of formation, composition and
the uses for all types of engineering works.
•Rocks- -is an aggregate of one or more minerals,
or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter.
Common rocks include granite, basalt, limestone,
and sandstone.
•Minerals- A mineral is a naturally occurring
inorganic element or compound having an orderly
internal structure and characteristic chemical
composition, crystal form, and physical properties.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PETROLOGY
-Petrology helps us understand the Earth's history
by studying the rocks that make up the planet's
surface. By analyzing the mineral content, structure,
and texture, a petrologist can learn about the
condition under which they form and how they
change through the geologic process over time.
CLASSIFICATION AND DISTINCTION OF
IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMPRPHIC
ROCKS
•Igneous
-Are a type of rock that form due to the
solidification of magma
•Sedimentary
-A type of rocks that form via accumulation or
deposition of sediment materials
•Metamorphic
-Form from the transformation of an existing rock
type into a new rock type
-These rocks are commonly formed by the partial
melting of minerals, and re-crystallization
TEST OF HARDNESS OF ROCKS
-Hardness tests evaluate a material's resistance to
deformation, helps in identification and classification
of rocks and minerals.
COMMON TOOLS THAT ARRE USED TO TEST
THE HARDNESS F ROCKS
•Mohs hardness kit - this kit features minerals with
varying hardness levels, with talc being the softest
and diamond being the hardest. Rock hardness can
be estimated on the mohs scale by comparing it to
these minerals.
•Hardness picks- tools made of picks, often
minerals like tungsten carbide or quartz, are used to
scrape the surface of rocks to measure their
hardness based on different pick alternatives.
•Geologist’s hammer- a tool, also known as a
geological pick or rock hammer, is used to
separate rock samples for analysis by assessing
their fracture or chipping resistance, determining
their relative hardness.
•Scratch plate- the hardness of a rock can be
determined by examining if it scratches or is
scratched by a small fragment of unglazed
porcelain or ceramic tile.
•Point load test apparatus - this tool is used to
evaluate the strength of rocks in the field or lab,
calculating the force required to fracture or deform a
small specimen with a focused load, providing an
indirect indication of the rock's hardness.
USES OF PETROLOGY
•Geological Mapping- understanding formation
processes and rock distribution, aiding in
geological mapping for mineral exploration, resource
location, and understanding the geological past of an
area, thereby enhancing its geological
understanding.
•Mineral Exploration- petrologists identify precious
minerals and ores by analyzing rock mineralogical
composition and textures, directing mining
operations to specific areas based on this
information.
•Geological Engineering- a petrological study aids
in assessing the stability, strength, and
suitability of rocks for engineering projects like
roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams by assessing their
resistance to weathering, erosion, and structural
integrity.
•Oil and Gas Exploration- a petrological study aids
in assessing the stability, strength, and
suitability of rocks for engineering projects like
roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams by assessing their
resistance to weathering, erosion, and structural
integrity.
•Environmental Studies- petrology evaluates the
environmental impact of various activities on
rocks and minerals, enabling the identification of
potential pollutants, understanding their behavior in
the environment, and assessing the impact of mining
and extraction operations on ecosystems.
•Archeology and Anthropology –petrologists
utilize mineral and rock compositions to identify
geological origins of objects, provide insights into
historical trade routes, and understand cultural
exchanges.
•Earth Science Research- petrologists study
rocks' mineralogy, textures, and geochemical
signatures to understand plate tectonics, volcano
formation, mountain evolution, and earth's crust and
mantle composition, making them crucial for
understanding earth's history and processes.
USES OF PETROLOGY IN HUMAN AND SOCIETY
•Ceramics, pottery, glass utensils- Earthen
elements and clay are utilized in the production of
ceramics, glasses, and utensils, while metals from
ores are used for glasses, and silica sand and
limestone for utensils
•Gemstones- Rocks with unique color, clarity,
durability, rarity, and form have been recognized for
thousands of years and can be found in various
geological minerals
•Food Industry- Powdered minerals like sodium
chloride and calcium carbonate are used in food
preparation, while sand filters water with diatomite
from fossilized algae, and ditomite and bentonite
clay purify drinks like beer and wine.
•Fertilizer Industry- Phosphate rock, potash, and
lime are used in agricultural fertilizers to improve
soil quality, while glauconitic sandstone, a
sedimentary rock, is crushed for use in agricultural
fields.
•Packaging Industry- Food, cold drinks, and
energy drinks can be packaged using aluminum or
steel cans, silica sand glass from rocks, or
hydrocarbon-derived plastic.
•Building materials- Rocks like sandstones,
quartzite, and slate are used in road and building
construction, along with iron, clay, slate, limestone,
gypsum, plaster, silica sand, sand and gravel, and
crushed rock. Paints and pigments are derived from
rock and mineral sources, with granite being
popular.
•Power Generation –Energy is generated from
fuel minerals like coal and petroleum, used in
homes, industries, services, and transportation.
Geologists explore hydrocarbon reserves, while
petroleum industry produces by-products like plastic
and organics. Nuclear power reactors use naturally
occurring radioactive materials
•Transportation- Minerals are essential in various
transportation modes, including cars, trains,
planes, boats, and footings. Aggregates like crushed
rock, sand, and gravel are used for roads,
footpaths, railway tracks, airports, railway stations,
and shipping ports.
•Information and Computer Technology-
Computers and mobile phones require minerals
and metals like copper, gold, platinum, tantalum, tin,
zinc, and nickel. Quartz crystals, derived from rocks,
have unique properties for high-tech applications like
superconductors, lasers, molecular sieves, and
high-temperature ceramics
BRANCHES OF PETROLOGY
•Igneous Petrology- focuses on igneous rocks,
formed when lava or magma solidifies, examining
their processes, composition, origin, classification,
textures, and makeup.
•Sedimentary Petrology- focuses on the
accumulation, movement, and deposition of
sediments, including weathering, erosion,
deposition, transportation, and diagenesis
processes
•Metamorphic Petrology- focuses on metamorphic
rocks formed by temperature, pressure, and
chemical composition changes. It examines mineral
assemblages, textures, and interactions in these
rocks.
APPLICATION OF MAJOR ELEMENTS IN
PETROLOGY
1. Rock Classification and Nomenclature - Rocks
are categorized and named based on major
components like silica, alumina, iron oxide, calcium
oxide, sodium oxide, and potassium oxide, providing
information about their mineralogy and chemical
composition.
2. Granite Classification- Igneous petrology
classifies granitic rocks into granodiorite, tonalite,
and granite based on the proportion of key oxides
like silica, alumina, and alkalis. These divisions offer
insights into the tectonic environments and
processes that led to the formation of these rocks.
3. Petrographic Analysis- Major element ratios,
such as silica to iron, silica to alumina, and silica to
magnesia, are crucial in petrographic studies, as
they provide insights into the weathering, alteration,
and mineralogical composition of rocks under a
microscope.
4. Geochemical Studies- Geochemical research
uses major element compositions of rocks,
particularly volcanic rocks, to understand magma
development, differentiation, and creation
processes.
5. Petrologic Modeling- involves entering major
element compositions as input parameters, allowing
petrologists to create mathematical models to
understand geologic processes like fractional
crystallization, magma mixing, and magma chamber
dynamics by analyzing primary element ratios and
trends in rocks and minerals.
6. Petrogenesis and Tectonic Interpretations-
Petrologists analyze the composition of major
elements in different geologic regions to
comprehend tectonic settings and petrogenesis of
rocks, enabling them to determine the origin and
development of these structures.
SIGNIFANCE OF IGNEOUS PETROLOGY
1. Understanding Earth's Interior- Igneous
petrology helps physicists understand the Earth's
interior dynamics, composition, and structure
2. Volcanic Activity and Hazards -Understanding
igneous petrology is crucial for studying volcanic
activity and associated risks. Petrologists can
assess the composition, texture, and eruption
products of volcanic rocks to determine explosivity,
magma behavior, and potential dangers.
3. Rock Classification and Nomenclature-
Igneous petrology is a method used by petrologists
to classify rocks based on their mineralogy,
chemistry, and texture, thereby facilitating a shared
understanding of rock types and their geological
significance, aiding in communication among
geoscientists.
4. Petrographic Analysis- Igneous petrology
involves petrographic analysis, a microscopic
examination of thin rock slices. It provides
information on the creation, crystallization, and
alteration processes of igneous rocks, aiding in the
identification of minerals, textures, and structures.
This method simplifies the determination of
formation circumstances, cooling histories, and
magmatic processes.
5. Geochronology and Tectonic
Reconstructions- Igneous petrology helps in
geochronology, determining the age of rocks and
geological events. Petrologists use radiometric
dating techniques to determine the chronology of
tectonic events, igneous activity, and Earth's crust
development.
6. Economic Significance- Igneous petrology is
crucial for studying the development and distribution
of economically valuable mineral deposits, including
ores, gemstones, and industrial minerals. By
examining geochemistry, mineralogy, and textures
of igneous rocks, petrologists can identify potential
deposits and aid in their exploration and utilization.
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous rock- Igneous rocks (derived from the
Latin word for fire) are formed when molten hot
material cools and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also
be made a couple of different ways. When they are
formed inside of the earth, they are called intrusive,
or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed outside
or on top of Earth's crust, they are called extrusive,
or volcanic, igneous rocks
•Intrusive rocks- Intrusive, or plutonic. igneous rock
forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth.
•Extrusive rocks- Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous
rock is produced when magma exits and cools
above (or very near) the Earth's surface.
2. Sedimentary rock- Sedimentary rocks are
formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic
material. There are three different types of
sedimentary rocks: clastic, organic (biological),
and chemical. Clastic sedimentary rocks like
sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock.
Organic sedimentary rocks, like coal form from
hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and
bones that are compressed into rock. Chemical
sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint,
form from chemical precipitation.
3. Metamorphic rock- Metamorphic rocks are rocks
that have been changed from their original form by
immense heat or pressure. Metamorphic rocks have
two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock
with flat or elongated minerals is put under immense
pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating
foliation. Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same
way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend
to line up under pressure and thus do not have the
layered appearance of foliated rocks
•Magma- Magma is extremely hot liquid and semi-
liquid rock located under Earth's surface. Much of
the planet's mantle consists of magma. This magma
can push through holes or cracks in the crust,
causing a volcanic eruption. When magma flows or
erupts onto Earth's surface, it is called lava.
TYPES OF MAGMA
•Basalt, Andesite, Ryholite
METAMORPHIC PROCESS
•Metamorphism- Metamorphism occurs when solid
rock changes in composition and/or texture
without the mineral crystals melting, which is how
igneous rock is generated. Metamorphic source
rocks, the rocks that experience the metamorphism,
are called the parent rock or protolith from proto-
meaning first, and lithos- meaning rock.
1. Temperature (heat)- Temperature measures a
substance's energy-an increase in temperature
represents an increase in energy. Temperature
changes affect the chemical equilibrium or cation
balance in minerals.
2. Pressure (confining pressure and direct
stress) -Pressure is the force exerted over a unit
area on a material. The pressure that affects
metamorphic rocks can be grouped into confining
pressure and directed stress. When pressure is
exerted from rocks above it is balanced from below
and sides and is called confining or lithostatic
pressure. Directed stress, also called differential or
tectonic stress, is an unequal balance of forces on
a rock in one or more directions (see the previous
figure).
3. Fluids- This style of metamorphism, in which
fluids play an important role, is called hydrothermal
metamorphism or hydrothermal alteration. Water
actively participates in chemical reactions and allows
extra mobility of the components in hydrothermal
alteration.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. Fossils-Sedimentary rocks often hide ancient
treasures. These are like preserved parts or clues of
plants, animals, or other living things from a long
time ago.
2. Stratification- Sedimentary rocks usually come in
layers called strata. These layers are created as
bits of sediment pile up over time, and each layer
tells a different part of the Earth's story with its size,
material, and color.
3. Non-crystalline nature- Unlike some other rocks
that have interlocking crystals, sedimentary rocks
are more like a collection of tiny pieces. These
pieces can be tiny grains of different sizes, including
clay, silt, sand, or larger bits.
4. Bedding plane- Sedimentary rock layers are
usually flat or gently sloping, like they were originally
laid down. Sometimes, Earth's movements can tilt or
fold these layers, adding more to the Earth's story.
DESCRIPTION, OCCURRENCE, PROPERTIES,
AND DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIFIC IGNEOUS
ROCKS, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, AND
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCK
•Granite
- Granite is a plutonic light-colored igneous rock
known for its equigranular texture, characterized by
roughly equal-sized grains. It's one of the most
common types of igneous rocks.
•Syenite
- Syenite is an intrusive igneous rock primarily
composed of orthoclase feldspar, often light to
medium in color, with varying textures.
- Typically pink, reddish, or grayish due to the
dominant presence of orthoclase feldspar.
•Diorite
- Diorite is an intrusive igneous rock intermediate in
composition between granite and gabbro, known for
its speckled appearance.
- Usually speckled with dark-colored hornblende
crystals set within a lighter-colored matrix of
plagioclase feldspar.
•Cabbro
- Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored intrusive
igneous rock chemically equivalent to basalt,
composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar,
pyroxene, and sometimes olivine.
- Dark in color, ranging from greenish-black to black,
with mottled or speckled patterns.
•Pecmatite
- Pegmatite is an igneous rock known for its
exceptionally large crystals, coarsely crystalline, and
often containing rare minerals.
- Varied mineral composition, including feldspar,
quartz, mica, tourmaline, beryl, garnet, and more.
•Dolerite
- Dolerite is a fine-grained mafic rock, often referred
to as the fine-grained equivalent of gabbro,
characterized by its dark color.
- Typically dark gray to black with a relatively fine-
grained texture.
•Basalt
- Basalt is a fine-grained extrusive igneous rock
commonly found in volcanic regions, both on land
and the ocean floor.
- Dark gray to black in color with a fine-grained
texture. - Hard and often used in construction, road
building, and as a decorative stone.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
•Sandstone
-It is a sedimentary rock that is composed of sand
size grain particles such as minerals, rock fragments
or organic material.
- Sandstones are economically important as major
reservoirs for both petroleum and water, as building
materials, and as valuable sources of metallic ores.
•Limestone
- It is dominantly composed of the calcium bearing
carbonate minerals calcite and dolomite.
Used: steel manufacturing ,paper production, water
treatment and purification plastic production.
•Shale
- It is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that is formed
when silt and clay are compressed.
Valuable material for: tile, brick, pottery
•Conglomerate
- It is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed
of a finer-grained matrix of sand, silt, or clay plus
rounded gravel.
- Conglomerate rocks provide valuable information
to geologists about the geological history and
environmental conditions of the past.
•Breccia
-It is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary
rocks that are composed of large angular fragments.
Used in: architectural stones for paving stone,
building stone, tiles, window sills, interior building
veneers.
METEMORPHIC ROCKS
•Quartzite
- Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed when
quartz-rich sandstone or chert has been exposed to
high temperatures and pressures.
- Bricks and other strong building material are made
of quartzite.
•Schist
- Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of
plate-shaped mineral grains that are large enough to
see with an unaided eye.
•Slate
-Slate is a metamorphic rock of sedimentary origin.
Is mainly composed of quartz, sericite and minerals
of the chlorite group.
Uses: roofing, flooring, flagging
•Cneiss
- Gneiss is a coarse to medium grained banded
metamorphic rock formed from igneous or
sedimentary rocks during regional metamorphism.
Used as a building material for: flooring, ornamental
stones, gravestones, facing stones on buildings and
work surfaces.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK
MECHANICS (G7)
ATTITUDE OF BEDS
● Bed- it is a layer of sediment, composed of
sedimentary rocks or a pyroclastic material. The
smallest (visible) levels of a hierarchical succession
are called laminae, which are tiny beds that
frequently, but not always, internally compose a bed.
TYPES OF BEDS
● Cross Bedding-is stacking at an angle to the
primary bedding plane and within a stratum. The
resulting sedimentary structures are composed of
inclined layers arranged in roughly horizontal units
● Graded Bedding- a graded bed is one that has a
consistent shift in clast or grain size from the bottom
to the top of the bed.
● Attitude of Bed-A general term used for the
orientation of a bed in linear or planar structures,
it also refers to the three-dimensional orientation of
planar and linear features of a bed. The attitude of
the bed is based on striking or dipping of the bed.
● Attitude of Linear Structures - defined by trend
and plunge, combining the two which forms a vector
● Orientation of Linear Structures
-The plunge of a line is its inclination, measured
downward relative to horizontal;
-The trend of a line is its azimuth, measured in the
direction of the plunge.
1. Trend - A feature's azimuth, or direction of dive,
is called its trend. A vertical line would drop at 90°,
while a horizontal line would plunge at 0°.
2. Rake (Pitch) - a linear feature that lies within the
plane, it is also the angle measured within the plane
from the strike line.
Attitude of Planar Structures - Defined by the
strike and dip of the structures.
1. Strike - When a horizontal line cuts through a
bedding plane, a joint plane, or a fault plane surface
will yield a line of intersection for the plane.
2. Dip - The bedding plane's inclination occurs along
the direction known as the dip. The angle of
inclination between the bedding plane and a
horizontal plane is known as the dip amount.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
In undisturbed layers of bedding, it states that the
oldest layers are located at the bottom part and each
overlapping layer is likely to be younger, and if the
outcrop lines are parallel and having a discontinuity
from the geological records but having the same
amount of dip is conformable.
● Brunton Compass- Also known as Brunton
Pocket Transit, made by Canadian-born geologist
David W. Brunton, is used with the help of Earth’s
magnetic field to get directions and angle degree
measurements from foliations and lineations.
OUTCROPS
WHAT IS OUTCROPS IN GEOLOGY?
Outcrops are visible areas on the Earth's surface
displaying natural or human-made rock formations.
Found commonly near riversides, deep valleys, and
hilltops, they're shaped by nature's forces like river
flows, wind erosion, and glaciers. Human activities
such as mining, well digging, prospect holes, shaft
mines, and adit construction can also expose these
formations.
HOW DO OUTCROPS FORM?
● Erosion: The most common way outcrops are
formed is through erosion. Over time, weathering
and erosion wear away the overlying material,
exposing the underlying bedrock
● Tectonic Activity: Movements in the Earth's
crust, such as faulting, folding, and uplifting, can
bring deep-seated rocks closer to the surface,
creating outcrops.
● Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions can bring
molten rock (magma) to the surface. When the
magma cools and solidifies, it forms volcanic rocks
that may be exposed as outcrops.
● Glacial Action: Glaciers can erode the landscape,
exposing bedrock as they move over an area. When
the glacier recedes, the underlying rock is left
exposed.
● Mining and Quarrying: Human activities like
mining and quarrying involve the removal of
overlying material to extract valuable minerals or
resources, exposing the underlying bedrock.
● Human Excavation: Construction activities, road
cuts, and other forms of excavation can expose
bedrock that was previously covered by soil or other
materials.
TYPES OF OUTCROP
1. Bedrock Outcrops: These are solid exposures of
the underlying bedrock, showcasing the primary rock
formation of an area. Bedrock outcrops often reveal
the geological history and composition of a region.
2. Stratigraphic Outcrops: These outcrops display
layers or strata of rocks, providing a clear view of the
sequence of rock formations. They are essential for
understanding the geological history of an area and
the relative ages of different rock layers.
3. Fault Outcrops: Faults are fractures in the
Earth's crust where movement has occurred. Fault
outcrops showcase the juxtaposition of different rock
units caused by this movement, allowing geologists
to study the effects of faulting on the landscape.
4. Folded Outcrops: These outcrops exhibit folded
rock layers, showcasing the deformation caused by
tectonic forces. They offer insights into the forces
that shaped the Earth's crust and the processes
involved in rock deformation.
5. Volcanic Outcrops: These outcrops result from
volcanic activity and display various volcanic rock
types, such as lava flows, ash deposits, and volcanic
breccias. They provide information about past
volcanic events and the composition of volcanic
materials.
6. Sedimentary Outcrops: Sedimentary outcrops
are formed from the accumulation and compaction
of sediments. They include rock types like
sandstone, shale, limestone, and conglomerates,
offering clues about ancient environments, such as
oceans, deserts, or river systems.
7. Metamorphic Outcrops: These outcrops display
rocks that have undergone significant changes in
texture, mineralogy, or structure due to high
pressure and temperature. Examples include marble
(from limestone) or schist (from shale).
8. Coastal Outcrops: These outcrops are found
along coastlines, cliffs, or rocky shores, showcasing
erosion patterns, sedimentary layers, and geological
formations affected by wave action, weathering, and
sea-level changes.
9. Glacial Outcrops: Exposed rock formations
resulting from glacial movement or retreat. Glacial
outcrops may display striations or polish caused by
the movement of glaciers.
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY OUTCROPS
-Geologists rely on outcrops for direct observation
and sampling of bedrock, crucial for geological
analysis and mapping.
-This helps establish the area's geological history
and contributes to understanding Earth's timeline.
Outcrops provide unique insights into structural
features, fossil assemblages, and ancient
environments, filling gaps that drilling may miss.
GEOLOGIC MAPS
-Geologic maps represent the distribution of different
types of rock and surficial deposits, as well as
locations of geologic structures such as faults and
folds.
-These are the primary source of information for
various aspects of land-use planning, including the
siting of buildings and transportation systems.
DIGITAL GEOLOGIC MAPS
-These are interactive electronic documents that put
earth science issues into geospatial frameworks.
They capture the size, shape, depth, and physical
and chemical contexts of earth materials, and they
blend data display with the results of interpretive
research.
TYPES GEOLOGICAL MAPS
● Topographic Maps - A map where locations of
equal elevation are connected by lines called
contour lines
● Cross-Sectional Maps - These maps show the
cross-section from the side.
● Structural Maps - These maps show the
orientation and location of different types of geologic
structures, such as faults and folds. Structural maps
can be used to study the history of tectonic activity
in an area, as well as the potential for earthquakes
and other natural hazards.
ELEMENTS OF GELOGICAL MAPS
● Color - It represents various types of geologic
features or units (a particular type of rock with a
known age range)
● Letter - The set is usually composed of an initial
capital letter followed by one or two lowercase
letters. The capital letter represents the age of the
geologic unit. The lower-cased letters indicate the
geologic unit’s name or the type of rock it comprises.
● Legend/Key - A list or diagram that explains the
symbols and colors used on the map, including rock
formations, geological structures, and other
features.
● Contact and fault lines- When two geologic units
are located next to each other, the place where they
meet is called contact. The two main types of
contacts are depositional contacts and faults.
● Depositional contacts - Are created when geologic
units are composed under, over, or next to each
other. The place where they meet is called a
depositional contact and is indicated by a thin line.
● Faults - Are cracks or fractures in Earth's crust
(the outer portion of Earth's surface) caused by the
movement of land masses, called plates, on either
side of the fault line. When plates move suddenly,
the result is an earthquake.
-A Fault Line (a thick line with the same geologic
unit on both sides of the line) indicates geologic units
that have been moved by faults after they have been
formed. Fault lines are essential for geologic maps
of where faults are known to be active.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS
● Geological maps provide a visual representation of
the geology of a region, including rock types, faults,
folds, and other geological features.
● Resource exploration: Geological maps can be
used to identify areas with potential mineral
resources, such as metals, coal, and oil.
● Engineering and construction: Geological maps
are used to assess the geologic hazards associated
with an area, such as landslides, sinkholes, and
seismic activity. This information is essential for
designing safe and effective infrastructure.
● Environmental management: Geological maps
are used to identify areas with potential
environmental hazards, such as contaminated soil
and groundwater, and to assess the impact of
human activities on natural resources.
STUDY OF STRUCTURES SUCH AS FOLD,
FAULTS, AND JOINTS
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
-is a branch of geology that deals with the origin,
occurrence, classification, type and effects of
various secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
rock cleavage and are different from those primary
structures such as bedding and vesicular structure,
which develop in rocks at the time of their formation.
-concerned with the physical and mechanical
characteristics of rocks.
-It offers key ideas for attempting to comprehend the
lithosphere and rock deformation.
EXAMPLE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
FOLDS
-are one of the most common geological structures
found in rocks. When a set of horizontal layers are
subjected to compressive forces, they bend either
upward or downward.
PARTS OF FOLDS
● Anticline -An anticline is the unfolded rock strata
that take up an arch’s shape.
● Syncline-The downfolded rock strata, which looks
like a trough, is called a syncline.
● Limbs -The two sides of the fold are called limbs.
Axial Plane The plane that bisects the angle
between two limbs is called the axial plane.
● Axis- The line of intersection of the axial plane with
the upper or lower surface of any rock bed is called
the axis
● Strike- The strike of an inclined bed is the direction
of any horizontal line on the bedding plane.
● Dip-The inclination of the rock beds with respect
to the horizontal plane is called dip.
TYPES OF FOLDS
1. Symmetrical Fold: These are folds where the
axial plane is vertical and both limbs incline
uniformly. They are formed when compressive
forces regularly act with moderate intensity.
2. Asymmetrical Fold: They are folds where the
axial plane is inclined and the limbs of the anticline
dip in opposite directions. One limb is longer with a
moderate inclination, while the other is shorter with
a steep inclination.
3. Overturned Fold: It is a type of fold where the
axial plane is inclined and both limbs dip in the same
direction but at different angles.
4. Recumbent Fold: Recumbent folds are
characterised by a horizontal axial plane. They are
formed when compressive forces are so strong that
the limbs become parallel and horizontal.
5. Isoclinical Fold: These are folds where two
limbs dip at equal angles in the same direction. They
are formed when the compressional forces are so
strong that the limbs become parallel.
6. Chevron Fold: These are folds with sharp and
angular crests and troughs.
FAULTS
-a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks
of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to
each other.
TYPES OF FAULTS
1. Normal fault -Forms when the hanging wall drops
down in relation to the footwall. Extensional forces,
those that pull the plates apart, and gravity are the
forces that create normal faults. They are most
common at divergent boundaries.
2. Reverse fault- Forms when the hanging wall
moves up. The forces creating reverse faults are
compressional, pushing the sides together. They are
common at convergent boundaries. Together,
normal and reverse faults are called dip-slip faults,
because the movement on them occurs along the
dip direction -- either down or up, respectively.
3. Strike-slip fault- Have walls that move sideways,
not up or down. That is, the slip occurs along the
strike, not up or down the dip.
4. Oblique faults -Although many faults have
components of both dip-slip and strike-slip, their
overall movement is usually dominated by one or the
other. Those that experience considerable amounts
of both are called oblique faults.
MAGNITUDE OF FAULTS
-Like folds, faults also have considerable range in
their magnitude. Some occur for short distance,
while other can be traced for very long distances.
-In some cases displacement may be less than a
centimeter while in other it may be many or even
kilometers. The magnitude of faulting obviously
depend on the intensity and the nature of shearing
stresses involved.
PARTS OF FAULTS
1. Foot Wall and Hanging Wall- When the fault
plane is inclined, the faulted block which lies below
the fault plane is called the “foot wall” and the other
block which rests above the fault plane is called
“hanging wall”. In this case of vertical faults, naturally
the faulted blocks cannot be described as foot wall
or hanging wall.
2. Slip- The displacement that occurs during faulting
is called the slip. The total displacement is known as
the next slip. This may be along the strike direction
or the dip direction or along both.
JOINTS
-fractures found in all types of rocks.
-They are cracks or openings formed due to various
reasons and the presence of joints divides the rock
into number of parts or blocks.
EFFECTS OF JOINTS
-From the civil engineering point of view, joints are
important because they split the rocks into a number
of pieces which, in turn, reduce the competence of
rock mass, increase the porosity and permeability
and make them susceptible to quick decay and
weathering.
- But a few advantages that accompany joints are;
their occurrence increases the ground water
potential in any place.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS, POROSITY,
PERMEABILITY, DENSITY, STRENGTH,
HARDNESS, ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
-The study covers the physical and mechanical
characteristics of rocks, such as porosity,
permeability, density, strength, hardness, elasticity,
and plasticity.
● Porosity-The percentage of vacant spaces in a -Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are important
rock's total volume is referred to as porosity. quantities for describing rock elasticity.
-It's an important feature since it influences a rock's ● Plasticity-When stressed beyond its elastic limit,
capacity to retain and transfer fluids, making it useful a rock's plasticity shows its capacity to undergo
in hydrogeology, oil and gas reservoir persistent deformation.
characterization, and civil engineering.
-The Atterberg limits are frequently used in the
● Permeability -The capacity of a rock to transport assessment of plasticity.
fluids through its pore network is measured by
permeability. It is influenced by groundwater flow, oil
and gas reservoir productivity, and geothermal
energy extraction and is closely connected to
porosity. STRUCTRURAL GEOLOGY AND
● Density -The density of a rock is its mass per unit ROCK MECHANICS (G8)
volume. It is a fundamental feature that aids in the
DYNAMICS PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
differentiation of rock kinds.
The spectrum of rock dynamics is very wide and it
-The Archimedes principle and pycnometers are
includes the failure of rocks, rock masses and rock
used to measure density.
engineering structures such as:
● Strength-The capacity of a rock to sustain applied
Rockbursting Spalling
loads without deformation or failure is indicated by
its strength. Collapse Sliding
TYPES OF STRENGTH Popping Blasting
● Comprehensive Strength- Measures a material's Topping Geophysical Explorations
ability to withstand axial loads (pushing or squeezing
forces) without collapsing or failing. METHODS TO MEASURE DYNAMIC
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
● Tensile Strength/Tension- Assesses a material's
capacity to withstand stretching or pulling forces FIELD METHODS
without breaking or tearing. -Field methods involve applying dynamic loads or
● Shear strength- Measures a material's resistance vibrations to the rock mass or structures and
to forces that cause internal sliding or deformation measuring the resulting responses, such as
parallel to the applied force. displacements, strains, or accelerations.

● Hardness-Indicates a rock's resistance to COMMON FIELD METHODS:

scratching or abrasion. It's vital in mining, quarrying, ●Seismic refraction
and mineral exploration to assess the suitability of
rocks for various industrial purposes. ●Seismic reflection
1. Soft Rocks: Sedimentary rocks like shale and ●Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW)
claystone tend to have lower hardness values,
typically ranking low on the Mohs scale. ●Cross-hole and Down-hole Tests

2. Medium -Hard Rocks: Many common rocks, ●Dynamic Penetration Tests

including sandstone and limestone, fall into the GENERAL PROCEDURES:
intermediate hardness range.
1. Site selection
3. Hard Rocks: Igneous and metamorphic rocks,
such as granite and quartzite, are generally harder 2. Equipment setup
and have higher hardness values.
3. Baseline measurements
● Elasticity- is the capacity of a rock to deform
4. Dynamic loading
under tension and then return to its original shape
once the load is removed. 5. Data collection
6. Analysis
7. Interpretation P-wave (primary or compressional waves) -This
is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and,
8. Reporting and Recommendations consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
LAB METHODS The speed at which P-waves travel through
-Lab methods involve testing rock samples in a material is determined by:
controlled environment using specialized equipment ●Rigidity- is how strongly the material resists being
and techniques. bent sideways and is able to straighten itself out
COMMON LAB METHODS: once the shearing force has passed.

●Resonant Column Tests ●Compressibility- is how much the material can be

compressed into a smaller volume and then recover
●Cyclic Triaxial Tests its previous volume once the compressing force has
passed.
●Bender Element Tests
● Density- is how much mass the material contains
●Ultrasonic Tests
in a unit of volume.
●Dynamic Shear Modulus Tests
P-waves travel through materials with rigidity
GENERAL PROCEDURES: and/or compressibility, and density

1. Sample preparation Greater rigidity - faster P-waves

2. Specimen dimensions Greater compressibility - faster P-waves

3. Test setup Greater density - slower P-waves

4. Initial measurements ●S-wave (secondary or shear waves) - is the

second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave
5. Dynamic loading is slower than a P wave and can only move through
6. Data acquisition solid rock, not through any liquid medium.
The speed at which S-waves travel through
7. Data analysis
material is determined by:
8. Interpretation
●Rigidity- is how strongly the material resists being
9. Reporting and Recommendations bent sideways and is able to straighten itself out
once the shearing force has passed.
TYPES WAVES THEORY
●Density- is how much mass the material contains
Wave- is a proportion of disturbances from place to in a unit of volume.
place in a regular and organized way.
S-waves travel through materials with rigidity
-Mechanical qualities of rocks including and density
incompressibility, stiffness, and density affect wave
speed, form, and duration at all distances from the Greater rigidity – faster S-waves
focal. Rock layering and surface soil conditions
affect wave characteristics. Greater density - slower S-waves

●Seismic Waves- are the waves of energy caused
by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through
the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
1. Body waves-are seismic waves that travel
through the interior of the earth, propagating through
the earth’s body rather than along its surface.
2. Surface Waves- typically at or near the Earth's
crust. Unlike body waves, which propagate through
the Earth's interior, surface waves are confined to
the outermost layer of the Earth. Surface waves are
responsible for the shaking and ground motion that
is most strongly felt during earthquakes.
●Love Waves (L- waves) - It's the fastest surface
wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
●Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave) - rolls along the ground
just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
Wave velocity is the speed at which a wave travels
through a medium. It is calculated by dividing the
wavelength of the wave by its frequency. The SI unit
of wave velocity is meters per second (m/s).
●Wave velocity can vary depending on the medium
through which the wave is traveling. For example,
sound waves travel faster through solids than they
do through liquids or gases. Light waves travel
fastest through a vacuum.
●It is used to design devices such as speakers,
microphones, and lasers. It is also used to interpret
data from earthquakes and other seismic events.
TWO TYPES OF WAVE PROPAGATION
●Longitudinal Waves- Longitudinal waves
propagate by compressing and expanding the
medium through which they are traveling.
●Transverse Waves- Transverse waves propagate
by vibrating the medium through which they are
traveling at right angles to the direction of
propagation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
INCLUDING MEDIUM, DENSITY, ELASTICITY,
AND TEMPERATURE
●Medium - The type of medium through which a
wave ●travels has a significant impact on its velocity.
For example, sound waves travel faster through
solids than they do through liquids or gases.
●Density - The density of a medium also affects
wave velocity. In general, waves travel faster
through denser media. For example, sound waves
travel faster through water than they do through air.
This is because water is denser than air.
●Elasticity - The elasticity of a medium is another
important factor that influences wave velocity. For
example, sound waves travel faster through steel
than they do through wood. This is because steel is
more elastic than wood.
●Temperature - The temperature of a medium can
also affect wave velocity. In general, waves travel
faster through warmer media. For example, sound
waves travel faster through warm air than they do
through cold air.
WAVE TYPE AND WAVE VELOCITY
HOW WAVE TYPES AFFECTS VELOCITY
●Sound Waves- travel faster through solids than
they do through liquids or gases.
●Light Waves - Light waves travel fastest through a
vacuum.
●Water Waves-travel faster in deep water than they
do in shallow water.
●Seismic Waves- travel faster through the Earth's
crust than they do through the Earth's mantle.
FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE WAVE
VELOCITY
●Nonlinearity – Wave nonlinearity is a
phenomenon that occurs when the amplitude of a
wave is large enough to cause the wave to interact
with itself.
●Dispersion - Wave dispersion is a phenomenon
that occurs when waves of different frequencies
travel at different speeds. Dispersion can also lead
to changes in wave velocity.
●Attenuation - Wave attenuation is the process by
which the energy of a wave decreases as it travels.
Attenuation can also lead to changes in wave
velocity.
●Medium anisotropy - Medium anisotropy is a
property of materials that have different properties in
different directions. Anisotropy can affect wave
velocity in a number of ways.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULUS OF
ELESTICITY
●Modulus of Elasticity - It can be defined as the
slope of the relation between the stress and strain. It
can also be defined as the change of stress with
respect to the elastic strain and may be computed by
the following relation.
●Stress - Deforming an object results in a restoring
force, equal in magnitude and direction to the
applied force, called stress, which is measured per
unit area of the material. It is usually represented by
“σ.”
●Strain - is the deformation of the body in response
to force, typically represented by “ε” and divided by
the initial body dimensions.
Typically measured in units of force per unit area,
such as pascals (Pa) or pounds per square inch
(psi).
DIFFERENT PARTS IN A STRESS STRAIN
CURVE
●Proportional limit
●Elastic limit region
Yield point
●Strain hardening region
●Ultimate stress point
●Breaking point
STATIC ELASTIC MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
-The strains obtained as above are plotted against
stress and a curve is obtained. As concrete is an
imperfect elastic material, stress strain diagram is a
curved line.
Three methods that can be used to determine the
modulus of elasticity:
●Initial tangent modulus.
●Tangent modulus.
●Secant modulus.
DYNAMIC MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
-The dynamic modulus of elasticity is a measure of
a material's elastic properties, calculated by
comparing stress and strain values.
-The dynamic modulus can be measured using
techniques such as dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA) or rheometer testing.
GROUTING
-Grout is a dense, fluid mixture of various materials
usually made up of cement, sand, and water or
chemicals used in construction and home
improvement projects, primarily for filling gaps or
spaces between tiles or masonry.
USES OF GROUTING
-Generally, grouting is used to fill gaps and cracks,
to serve as filler in tiling, and to prevent water from
seeping onto the exterior walls of concrete
structures. However, grouting has several
applications in the field of civil engineering:
●Soil Stabilization
●Bond tiles onto floors and walls
●Foundation Repair
●Tunneling and Underground Constructions
●Dam and Levee Repair
●Void Filling
●Sealing and Waterproofing
●Soil Improvement for Excavation
●Anchoring and Rock Bolting
●Underpinning Structures
TYPES OF GROUTING
1. Cementitious Grout- Also known as cement-
based grout. It is commonly used to seal wide
cracks, especially in gravity dams, canal linings,
foundations, and thick concrete walls.
Sanded Grout - Contains fine sand particles and is
used for wider grout joints
Quarry Type Grout - similar to sanded grout except
it uses coarser grains of sand.
Unsanded Grout - Lacks sand and is used for
narrower grout joints.
2. Polymer Grot- Polymer grouts are made from
synthetic polymers and are used for similar purposes
as chemical grouts.
3. Non-Shrink Grout- used for sealing cracks where
shrinkage cracking is expected.
4. Chemical Grout- are composed of solutions of
two or more chemicals (such as urethanes, sodium
silicates, and acrylamides) that combine to produce
a gel, a solid precipitate, or a foam.
-They are applicable in moist environments and can
fill very fine cracks.
5. Acrylic Grout- Defined as “true solution grouts”
as they are free of suspended solids and have
extremely low viscosity comparable to water.
6. Silicates- Sodium silicate is a low-viscosity
mixture that serves as a temporary solution for water
control or structural support with an expected
lifespan of a few years.
7. Polyurethane- Sodium silicate is a low-viscosity
mixture that serves as a temporary solution for water
control or structural support with an expected
lifespan of a few years.
Hydrophilic - requires water to react and expands
as a response.
Hydrophobic - generally dislikes water, needing
only a small amount to react which can be acquired
from concrete moisture.
8. Epoxy Grout- Epoxy grout is made of epoxy
resins and a filler powder. It is highly durable,
resistant to chemicals, and commonly non-porous
compared to cementitious grout.
9. Bituminous Grout- Also known as asphalt
grouting, this grouting technique involves the
injection of an asphalt material (similar to roofing
tar).
BEST WATER TO MIX GROUT
●Distilled water- is considered to be the best kind
of water to mix with grout. This is because distilled
water lacks certain minerals like magnesium,
sodium, and calcium which are found in other water.
TYPES OF CEMENT USED FOR GROUT
1. Low Heat Cement- Low Heat Cement is carefully
mixed to lower heat of hydration in concrete. This
unique feature makes it well-suited for extensive
concrete pours.
2. Super Sulphated Cement- is an environmentally
friendly cementitious material. It has less heat of
hydration when hydrated, minimizing the possibility
of cracking, provides resistance against sulfate
attacks.
3. Portland Pozzolana Cement- mixture of
Ordinary Portland Cement and pozzolana. The
addition of pozzolanas such as fly ash contains
cementitious properties and improves the mixture by
making the cement resistant to chemical attacks and
lowering its heat of hydration compared to OPC.
4. Quick Setting Cement- is similar to ordinary
Portland cement except for one major part, ordinary
Portland cement requires a minimum of 7 days to
fully dry while quick-setting cement only requires 20
- 40 minutes to start to do so.
HOW TO GROUT TILES
1. Preparation-
2. Mix
3. Prep towel and apply-
4. Remove excess grout
5. Sponge the surface
6. Fine clean the tiles
7. De-haze
8. Dry
9. Apply grout sealer
HOW TO GROUT CEMENT
1. Safety
2. Grout repair
3. Cleaning
4. Grout Application
5. Cleaning
6. Add more grout
7. Let it dry
CAUSES OF GROUT DAMAGE
●Improper Blending - Improper blending can cause
the grout to become vulnerable and less durable.
●Substrate complications - Uneven or unstable
substrates can make it difficult for the grout to
adhere, resulting in cracks or detachment.
●Improper Curing - If the grout is not properly dried
and hardened, it can become weak and easily
broken. Incorrect
●Water-to-Grout Ratio - The durability of the grout
may be destabilized if the procedure for blending is
done without a sufficient amount of water.
●Improper application - Weak spots that may fail
can be created if the grout is not spread evenly or if
some areas are overlooked.
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUT
●Stains - Grout easily absorbs stains, especially in
spill-prone areas, making it hard to clean.
●Cracking - Over time, grout can develop cracks,
especially in busy or settling places, making it less
sturdy.
●Cleaning Difficulty - Cleaning grout, especially
the light-colored kind, can be tough, and dirt tends to
stick in its tiny holes.
●Color Variations - Grout color may differ between
batches, causing uneven looks on tiled surfaces.
●Water Penetration - If not sealed properly, grout
may let water in, potentially causing damage or
allowing mold to grow.
●Mold and Mildew - Because grout has tiny spaces,
it's prone to mold and mildew, especially in damp
areas.
WHICH IS BETTER FOR GROUTING
●Epoxy Grout- Epoxy grout is considered by many
in the industry to be a superior choice for any kind of
tile project. Epoxy grout is durable, doesn't need to
be sealed, is stain and chemical resistant, and can
withstand high traffic and moist areas. This makes it
particularly good for indoor and outdoor use. Here
are some key characteristics that separate epoxy
grout from other types of grout
Application - Because epoxy dries faster than
normal grout, it requires careful mixing and labor
during installation.
Flexibility - Epoxy grout is less flexible than other
types in situations where the underlying surface may
move.
Endurance and Strength - Epoxy grout is well
known for its ability to tolerate cracking, shrinkage,
and wear. It's commonly believed to be more
resilient than cement-based grouts.
Waterproof - Epoxy grout is more effective than
cement grout at preventing water from seeping
through, making it suited for moist locations like
showers.
Stain Protection - Epoxy grout has good stain
resistance because of its low absorption of liquids.
Certain grouts have the ability to absorb stains,
especially in high-spill areas.
When contrasting epoxy grout with alternative
varieties, each exhibits distinct qualities:
Cement-based Grout- are economical and
adaptable, making them appropriate for a range of
uses. To improve stain resistance, they might,
nevertheless, require sealing.
Urethane Grout- are flexible, making them perfect
for regions that move. They might not be as stain-
resistant as epoxy grout, although being more stain-
resistant than cement-based alternatives.
Premixed Grouts - are convenient, they might not
be as durable or stain-resistant as epoxy and some
other forms of grout.
THE BEST GROUT CLEANING APPLICATION
CLEANING SOLUTION
1. White Vinegar and Water Solution - can help
clean grout stains and leftovers. It works well without
being too strong and won't harm the grout or tiles.
2. Baking Soda Paste - Baking soda is like a
scrubbing superhero that cleans grout without being
too rough. Making a paste with it helps get rid of dirt
and stains without scratching your tiles.
3. Commercial Grout Cleaner - Grout cleaners you
buy in the store are made with special stuff that
breaks down grime in your grout. They're made to
work on different types of grout and tiles, so you get
a solution that's just right
4. Hydrogen Peroxide Solution - Hydrogen
peroxide is like a mild bleach that can remove stains
from grout. It also helps keep things clean because
it acts like a germ-fighter.
5. Lemon Juice and Baking Soda Scrub - Mixing
lemon juice and baking soda makes a natural scrub
that helps clean grout. Lemon has a fresh smell, and
together with baking soda, it can tackle stains and
refresh your grout without harsh chemical.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING (G9)
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
- is a process of doing a site investigation that
involves gathering data, evaluating it, and reporting
any potential hazards that may exist beneath a given
site.
SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESSES
1. Desk Study - This comprises collecting and
inspecting all needed information and data about the
location and its surroundings, which include
geological maps, aerial photos, past records, or
earlier site investigation reports.
2. Geophysical surveys - These entail utilizing
several methods to determine and record the
physical characteristics of the subsurface,
particularly electricity resistance, magnetic
susceptibility, and seismic waves.
3. Drilling and Sampling - In order to gather
samples of soil and rock for laboratory analysis to
ascertain their physical as well as mechanical
attributes, this involves constructing drilling or
digging test pits.
4. In site testing - To find out rocks and soil
characteristics in their unaltered state, these tests
are performed on-site. Cone penetration testing, the
Standard Penetration Test, and pressure meter
testing are a few instances of in-site tests.
5. Laboratory testing - To do this, samples of rock
and soil must be analyzed in a lab to identify their
mechanical, chemical, and physical characteristics.
5. Laboratory testing - To do this, samples of rock
and soil must be analyzed in a lab to identify their
mechanical, chemical, and physical characteristics.
7. Remote sensing - This represents mapping and
analyzing the place and its surroundings using
satellite or aerial images
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF SITE
INVESTIGATION
●Assessment of Site Suitability:
-Determine if the site is suitable for the intended
purpose of the project.
-Ensure that the site has the necessary
characteristics and conditions for safe and effective
construction or development.
●Geotechnical Analysis:
-Evaluate the engineering properties of soil and rock
at the site.
-Provide crucial information for foundation design,
slope stability assessment, and overall structural
stability.
● Foundation Design:
-Provide data for designing appropriate foundations
for structures.
-Assist in selecting the most suitable foundation type
based on soil conditions, load-bearing capacity, and
structural requirements.
●Risk Identification and Mitigation:
-Identify potential risks and hazards associated with
the site.
-Develop strategies to mitigate risks related to
geotechnical conditions, environmental factors, and
other site-specific challenges.
●Environmental Impact Assessment:
-Assess the potential environmental impact of the
construction project.
-Understand how the project might affect the
surrounding environment, including soil, water, and
air quality. This is crucial for regulatory compliance
and sustainable development.
●Topographic Surveys:
-Map the site's surface features and contours.
-Provide essential data for site layout, infrastructure
planning, and understanding natural ●drainage
patterns.
Data Collection and Analysis:
-Gather information from various sources, including
geological maps, aerial photographs, and on-site
investigations.
-Facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the
site's history, characteristics, and potential
challenges.
●Compliance with Regulations:
-Ensure that the project complies with local, regional,
and national regulations.
-Avoid legal issues, meet environmental and safety
standards, and obtain necessary permits.
● Material Testing:
-Collect samples for laboratory testing of soil, rock,
and construction materials.
-Determine the mechanical and chemical properties
of materials, aiding in material selection and quality
control.
Decision-Making Support:
-Provide essential data for informed decision-
making during the project life cycle.
-Assist in making decisions related to design
modifications, construction methods, and risk
management.
Cost Estimation:
- Provide data for accurate cost estimation.
-Enable project managers to develop realistic
budgets by considering factors such as site
conditions, foundation requirements, and potential
risks
ENGINEERING SITE INVESTIGATIONS
- is a systematic process carried out to gather
essential information about a specific location where
a construction or engineering project is planned.
COMPONENTS OF ENGINEERING SITE
INVESTIGATION:
1. Geotechnical Exploration
2. Subsurface Exploration
3. Foundation Design
4. Risk Assessment
5. Environmental Site Assessment
6. Topographic Surveys
7. Data Collection and Analysis
8. Material Testing
9. Compliance with Regulations
10. Decision Support
GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATIONS
-plays a crucial role in the construction process since
it strives to comprehend and offer information on the
subsurface conditions of the site. Additionally, the
goal of this investigation is to learn about the soil
conditions beneath the surface.
ESSENTIAL STEPS:
1. Knowledge of the Site
2. Preliminary Assessment of the Site
3. Detailed Assessment for Construction
4. Recommendations and Solutions
PUPOSE OF SITE ENGINEERING ROLES AND
INVESTIGATIONS
- is multi-faceted, involving various tasks and
responsibilities aimed at ensuring the successful
planning, design, and execution of construction
projects.
KEY ASPECTS OF THE PURPOSE OF SITE
ENGINEERING ROLES AND INVESTIGATION:
1. Site suitability assessment- A process used to
evaluate and determine the appropriateness of a
specific location for a particular purpose or
development.
2. Risk identification and mitigation- A process
designed to identify, assess, and address potential
risks that could impact the achievement of an
organization's objectives.
3. Design optimization- A process that involves
finding the best possible design for a given set of
constraints and objectives.
4. Compliance with regulations- Compliance with
regulations refers to the act of adhering to and
following the laws, rules, standards, and guidelines
that are relevant to a particular industry,
organization, or activity.
5. Infrastructure planning- Refers to the process
of identifying, assessing, and organizing the
necessary structures, facilities, systems, and
services that support and enable a community,
region, or organization to function effectively.
6. Environmental considerations- Refer to the
assessment and integration of environmental factors
into decision-making processes, planning, and
actions.
7. Cost estimation and budgeting- Involves
predicting the expenses associated with a project or
business initiative and allocating resources
accordingly.
8. Project feasibility- The assessment of whether a
proposed project is viable, practical, and achievable.
9. Stakeholder communication- The process of
exchanging information with individuals or groups
who have an interest or stake in a particular project,
organization, or initiative.
PURPOSE & OBJECTIVES SITE INVESTIGATION
IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
- Site investigation in civil engineering serves several
important purposes and objectives. It is a crucial
phase in the planning and design process for any
construction project.
STAGES OF SITE INVESTIGATION
●STAGE 1: SITE RECONNAISANCE SITE-
reconnaissance is the first stage of subsoil
exploration
●STAGE 2: COLLECTION OF PRELIMINARY
INFORMATION- Preliminary site exploration is
carried out for small projects, light structures,
highways, airfields etc.
●STAGE3: DETAILED SITE EXPLORATION-
Detailed exploration is preferred for complex
projects major engineering works, heavy structures
like dam, bridge, high rise building etc.
●STAGE4: PREPARATION OF REPORT OF
SUBSOIL EXPLORATION- After performly
preliminary or detailed site exploration method a
report should be prepared.
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SITE ENGINEERING
●Minimizes damage- If you build your home on
shaky ground. You’ll almost certainly suffer damage
in the future. That may be due to a shaky base that
can’t support the weight of your house or the ground
pressure around it. Your home will be protected by a
suitable base that is built to withstand the elements
●Save on cost- Treating the soil is one of the most
effective ways to render a building site suitable. As a
result, a site inspection will help decide whether or
not the ground needs to be handled.
●Helps determine the construction materials- A
site investigation aids in the selection of the best
materials for construction. Some materials may not
be able to hold onto such soils for long periods of
time resulting in cracks in the walls or even floors not
long after construction is completed.
●Increases the safety of the project- One of the
best reasons for conducting a site inspection is to
decide whether or not it is safe to proceed with your
project.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF SITE ANALYSIS
●Susceptibility to groundwater levels and flow.
●Underlying geology, and ground and
hydrogeological properties.
●Geological Mapping - is the process of locating
and identifying rock types and geological structures
in relation to landforms and topography.
●Desktop Surveys- Researching and analyzing
previous company exploration reports, exploration
data, and published geological information are all
part of desktop surveys.
●Geophysical Surveys-Researching and analyzing
previous company exploration reports, exploration
data, and published geological information are all
part of desktop surveys.

●Identification of physical hazards. GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY VARIOUS TYPES

MEASURE VARIOUS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
●Identification of methane and other gasses. OF THE EARTH AND USE A VARIETY OF
APPLICATIONS AND EQUIPMENT SUCH AS.
●Determining an appropriate design.
●Airborne geophysical survey
●Providing soil parameters for design and
construction. ●Ground based survey
TYPES & ACQUIRE FOR IMPORTANCE: ●Radiometric geophysical survey
METHODS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
●Magnetic geophysical survey
●Test pit - Are holes dug prior to construction to help
ensure the ground conditions are suitable for GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
building projects. -is defined as the systematic process of studying and
●Probing- The probe should be inserted parallel to analyzing the geological conditions and
the vertical axis of the tooth and walked characteristics of a site or project area.
circumferentially around each surface of each tooth IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGICAL
to detect the areas of deepest penetration. INVESTIGATIONS
●Auger boring- The process of forming a horizontal It serves as a foundational step in civil engineering
bore by jacking the steel casing through the earth projects. This investigation is indispensable for
from a main shaft to a reception shaft. Spoil is comprehending subsurface geology, encompassing
removed from inside the encasement by means of a soil and rock composition, groundwater conditions,
rotating auger. and geological hazards.
●Wash boring- is a method for advancing boreholes PROCESSES
for site exploration and geotechnical investigation in
most types of soil except gravels and boulders. ●Desk Study and Literature Review
●Test piles- Sometimes the piles are driven into the ●Site Reconnaissance
ground to obtain the information of the solid strata.
●Borehole Drilling
●Deep boring - It becomes essential to carry out
deep boring for big important engineering structures ●Laboratory Testing
such as dams. ●Hydrogeological Assessment
●Geophysical method-In favorable circumstances, Geological Hazard Assessment
the geophysical method is adopted to know the
nature of soil strata. ●Data Interpretation
GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION ●Report Preparation
METHODS/SURFACE EXPLORATION
●Consultation and Review
EXPLORATION -The process of looking for mineral,
●Monitoring and Updates
coal, oil or natural gas deposits.
STAGES:
●Reconnaissance investigation
●Detailed geological investigation
●Geological investigation during construction
GEOLOGICAL METHOD
- Refers to the systematic approach and techniques
used by geologists to study and understand the
Earth's structure, composition, and processes.
Remote Sensing Remote- sensing techniques utilize
satellite or aerial imagery for Earth surface analysis.
●Laboratory Analysis - Also known as laboratory
testing or experimentation, refers to the process of
conducting scientific investigations and experiments
in a controlled environment, typically a laboratory.
●Stratigraphic Analysis Stratigraphy- studies
rock and sediment layering to decipher the
chronological sequence of geological events.
●Geomorphological Studies Geomorphology-
studies Earth's surface features and shaping
processes.
●Hydrogeological Investigations -
Hydrogeological studies focus on groundwater
movement and distribution.
EXPLORATION TECHNIQUE
-Exploration is the most crucial and initial stage of
mining.
-It is the process of searching for minerals or
resources in a particular area.
EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
1. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION
-is the process of searching for minerals or
resources in a particular area.
-Geological studies made on the ground lead to an
as-accurate mapping of the outcrops of the rock
layers in the area that could hold oil reserves.
EXPLORATION METHODS
●Geological Mapping- Is the process of drawing
maps that display a region's geological
characteristics, such as the kinds and locations of
rock formations.
INSTRUMENTS:
Geological compass
Measuring tape
Rock hammer
Hand lens
PROCEDURES:
1. Start by selecting an area of interest.
2. Then, traverse the area systematically
3. Measure strike and dip, and take photographs for
documentation purposes.
●Desktop Survey- Entail locating possible mineral
resources by evaluating the geological and
geophysical data that is already available.
INSTRUMENTS:
Computer
Internet access
Geological maps
Satellite imagery
PROCEDURES:
1. Gather existing data such as geological maps,
reports, and satellite imagery.
2. Analyze the data to evaluate the geological
potential of the area.
3. Cross-reference data from various sources.
2. GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
- is the process of using physical measurements and
analysis to locate and study subsurface structures
and resources.
DIFFERENT EXAMPLES OF METHODS
●Airbone Geophysical Surveying- measures
physical and geochemical parameters like
conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, and rock
density on Earth.
INSTRUMENTS:
Airborne geophysical survey systems
PROCEDURES:
1. Sensors are mounted on aircraft and flown over
the survey area.
2. The instruments measure magnetic fields,
radiation levels, and electromagnetic responses of
the Earth's surface.
3. Data collected is processed and analyzed to SAMPLING METHODS:
identify subsurface structures and potential mineral
resources. Sediment Sampling- involves taking samples of
sediment from water bodies like rivers and lakes.
●Borehole Surveying- Include the examination of
geophysical data obtained from test holes, wells, INSTRUMENTS:
and boreholes. Shovel, scoop or sediment
INSTRUMENTS: Corers sample bags
Borehole logging tools GPS device
Measuring electrical Labeling materials
Resistivity, PROCEDURES:
Magnetic susceptibility 1. Collect sediment samples from sedimentary
PROCEDURES: environments.

1. Instruments are lowered into drilled boreholes to 2. Ensure proper labeling and record the sampling
collect data at different depths. location.

2.Measurements of physical properties like electrical 3. Store the samples in sample bags for later
resistivity, seismic waves, magnetic susceptibility, analysis.
and gamma radiation are taken. These ●Soil Sampling- the process of gathering soil
measurements help identify subsurface structures, samples from a particular area and examining their
lithology, and potential mineral resources. chemical and physical characteristics.
●Ground Surveying (Land) - The process of INSTRUMENTS:
figuring out a point's location in two or three
dimensions on Earth is known as land surveying. Soil augers
INSTRUMENTS: Hand trowels
Magnetometers Sample bags
Gravimeters GPS device
Seismic equipment Labeling materials.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) PROCEDURES:
Resistivity meters 1. Collect soil samples from various depths.
IP instruments. 2. Ensure proper labeling and record the sampling
location with a GPS device.
PROCEDURES:
3. Store the samples in sample bags for later
1. Instruments are placed on the ground and analysis.
measurements are taken at different locations.
●Rock Chip Sampling- is a method of mineral
2. These measurements provide data on subsurface exploration that involves collecting rock chip
structures, density variations, seismic reflections, samples from exposed bedrock or outcroppings.
electrical resistivity, and potential mineralization.
INSTRUMENTS:
Rock hammer
3. GEOCHEMICAL SURVEY
Chisel
- The goal of a geochemical survey is to map out the
distribution and concentration of different chemical Sample bags
elements and compounds on the surface of the
GPS device
Earth by collecting and examining samples of soil,
sediment, water, and plants. Labeling materials.
PROCEDURES: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOOPHYSICAL
1. Collect rock chip samples from exposed rock INVESTIGATIONS IN CIVIL
surfaces. ENGINEERING (G10)
2. Ensure proper labeling and record the sampling GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
location.
- Geophysical methods offer versatile applications
3. Store the samples in sample bags for later across mineral exploration, environmental
analysis. assessment, and geological analysis by providing
valuable insights into subsurface properties such as
●Channel Sampling- is a method that geologists
porosity, permeability, and mineral composition.
employ to gather tiny rock fragments over a
predetermined linear interval. TYPES OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
INSTRUMENTS: 1. Passive methods- Passive geophysical methods
involve making measurements without introducing
Shovel
external energy sources into the Earth's subsurface,
Scoop or sediment relying on natural signals.
Corers sample bags ●Gamma Logging: Measures natural gamma
radiation emitted by subsurface materials to identify
GPS device rock types, stratigraphy, and mineral deposits in
Labeling materials. boreholes and wellbores.

PROCEDURES: ●Gravity Methods: Measure variations in the

1. Collect samples from channels or streams.
2. Ensure proper labeling and record the sampling
location.
3. Store the samples in sample bags for later
analysis.
●Trench and Test Pit- is a method that geologists
employ to gather tiny rock fragments over a
predetermined linear interval.
INSTRUMENTS:
Earth's gravitational field to discern subsurface
geological characteristics and density distributions.
●Magnetometry: Measures variations in the Earth's
magnetic field due to subsurface magnetic materials,
aiding in identifying geological structures, mineral
deposits, and archaeological artifacts.
●Self-potential (SP) or Spontaneous Potential:
Measures naturally occurring electrical potentials in
the subsurface, providing insights into geological
features, mineral deposits, groundwater flow
patterns, and environmental changes.

Trench machine 2. Active Methods- involve introducing controlled

signals or energy into the subsurface and measuring
Trench digger the response.
Drilling Rig Sample bags ●Borehole Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR):
A technique for assessing subsurface properties like
GPS device
porosity, permeability, and fluid content by analyzing
Labeling materials. the relaxation of atomic nuclei in rock and fluids.

PROCEDURES: ●Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT):

1. Dig trenches or test pits to expose subsurface
materials.
2. Collect samples from different depths.
3. Ensure proper labeling. Store the samples in
sample bags for later analysis.
Measures electrical resistivity to create resistivity
images, aiding in subsurface structure, groundwater,
and geological anomaly identification.
●Electromagnetic Methods: Utilize controlled
electromagnetic fields to investigate subsurface
properties like conductivity and resistivity.
Techniques include TDEM, FDEM, GPR, and MT,
each tailored to specific objectives and depths.
●Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Employs radar
waves to non-invasively investigate subsurface
features
●Seismic Reflection and Refraction: Employed to
understand subsurface properties, with reflection
focusing on bounced waves off interfaces and
refraction examining the bending of seismic waves
and structures.
USAGE OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
A. Geophysical Methods Used in Construction
●Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) – Used for
utility detection, geological surveys, archaeological
investigations, and environmental assessments.
●Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) – Used
in geotechnical engineering.
●Electromagnetic Methods – Serving applications
in mineral exploration, groundwater mapping, and
environmental assessments.
●Seismic Refraction – Valuable for geological
features, hydrocarbon exploration, and engineering
assessments.
B. Geophysical Methods Used in Site
Investigation
● Borehole Logging – Widely used in geology,
mineral exploration, and oil and gas drilling.
● Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) – Valuable
in hydrogeology, oil exploration, and environmental
studies for non-invasive, in-situ measurements.
●Self-Potential (SP) or Spontaneous Potential –
Used in mineral exploration, hydrogeology,
environmental studies, and geological research.
●Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) – Used
in environmental studies, and archaeology.
PURPOSE OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
1. Subsurface Characterization: Geophysical
methods play a crucial role in characterizing the
subsurface, providing valuable information on
geological structures, soil composition, and other
subsurface features. This aids in understanding the
geological setting of a site.
2.Risk Assessment: Geophysical investigations
help assess potential risks associated with
construction projects, such as the presence of buried
utilities, geological hazards, or variations in soil
properties that may impact construction stability.
3.Foundation Design: Geophysical data assists in
foundation design by offering insights into the
subsurface conditions. This information is vital for
determining the appropriate type and depth of
foundations to ensure structural stability.
4. Environmental Impact Assessment:
Geophysical methods aid in assessing the
environmental impact of construction activities by
identifying potential contaminant sources, evaluating
groundwater flow patterns, and understanding
subsurface conditions affecting environmental
stability.
5. Cost Efficiency: Geophysical surveys contribute
to cost efficiency by providing a non-invasive means
of subsurface investigation. This reduces the need
for extensive and costly drilling, particularly in large
construction projects.
6. Time Savings: Geophysical methods offer a
faster means of obtaining subsurface information
compared to traditional drilling methods. This time-
saving aspect is critical in meeting project timelines
and deadlines.
SEISMIC METHODS
- Involves measuring the propagation of seismic
waves (caused by the movement of earth materials)
through earth materials. It sends sound waves
through the ground and measures the time it takes
to reflect off in different rock boundaries and back up
to the surface.
Geophones is a steel case and magnet made out of
positive and negative terminals. It is a detector that
responds to the vibration in the ground from the
seismic waves and transforms it into a voltage.
TYPES OF SEISMIC METHODS
1. Seismic Reflection- A seismic source generates
waves that travel into the Earth's subsurface
(typically by setting of explosions or using a vibrating
plate.
-The waves bounce back into the surface.
2. Seismic Refraction- These waves bend as they
encounter layers with different seismic velocities and
by measuring the travel times and angles of
refraction the depths and velocities of subsurface
layers are determined.
-It is often used to determine the depth of bedrock,
identify aquifers, and assess geological layer
thickness in civil engineering and groundwater
studies.
3. Surface Wave Seismology- Surface wave
seismic methods analyze the seismic waves that
travel along or near the Earth's surface.
-These waves include Love waves and Rayleigh
waves, which can provide information about
subsurface properties.
BORE LOGGING
- involves inserting probes or instruments into a
drilled borehole to measure various parameters
without physically removing soil or rock samples.
TECHNIQUES:

4. Downhole Seismic Methods-Downhole seismic ●Gamma-ray logging,

measurements involve placing seismic sensors ●Resistivity logging,
(geophones) in boreholes or wells and measuring
the arrival times of seismic waves at different depths. ●Acoustic logging,

-This provides high-resolution data of subsurface ●Neutron logging

properties.
5. Crosshole Seismic Method- Cross hole seismic
tests involve generating seismic waves at one
borehole and recording them at another borehole at
different depths.
-By analyzing the travel times and amplitudes of the
waves, subsurface properties can be determined.
6. Borehole Seismic Methods- Borehole seismic
surveys use sensors placed within boreholes to
capture seismic data.
-These measurements can provide information
about subsurface geology, fractures, and reservoir
properties.
ELECTRICAL METHODS
●Density logging
DIRECT PENETRATION
- involve physically penetrating the subsurface
without removing soil or rock samples.
TECHNIQUES:
●Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
●Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
CORE BOROING
- Core boring is the process of drilling boreholes to
extract continuous cylindrical samples (cores) of soil
or rock from the subsurface using specialized drilling
equipment.

- It is a geophysical approach that measures the TYPES:

electrical properties of rocks and formations to ●Soil coring ● Rock Coring
explore the Earth's subsurface. It's very valuable for
mapping geological features, finding minerals, and CORE LOGGING
evaluating groundwater resources.
- involves extracting cylindrical samples (cores) of
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL METHODS soil or rock from boreholes using core barrels. The
extracted cores are then visually inspected,
1. Self-potential Methods- Measures natural described, and analyzed.
electrical potentials generated by electrochemical
processes occurring in the subsurface. GEOLOGIC CONDITION NECESSARY FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS, TUNNELS,
2. Direct Current Resistivity Method- used to BUILDING AND ROAD CUTTING.
investigate the subsurface by measuring the
electrical resistivity of the Earth's materials. It
involves passing an electric current into the ground
through electrodes and measuring the resulting DAMS
voltage differences to determine the resistance of - Dams are constructed to regulate water flow,
the subsurface materials to the electrical current. ensuring that the appropriate amount is available
3. Electromagnetic Method- used to investigate the when needed.
subsurface by measuring the response of materials - A dam is a solid barrier placed across a stream or
to varying electromagnetic fields. river to keep water from flowing downstream.
4. Induced Polarization Method- used to study the
electrical properties of the subsurface by measuring WHY ARE DAMS ADVANTAGEOS
the time-dependent response of rocks and minerals
to an applied electrical current.
•Irrigation- Dams aid crops and plants through BUILDINGS
evapotranspiration. Dams are a convenient way to
store vast amounts of water for agriculture. - A building is a permanent, enclosed structure
•Electrical Generation- Dam utilization in constructed for various purposes.
hydropower and electrical generating is one of the
staples of dams and a major industry benefit. •Flood GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
Control- Dams can be used to manage wash always CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS
or lessen floods in order to regulate the flow of water.
It can also lessen water congestion. ●General Landforms

•Water Supply- Dams can store water. ●Risk

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR ●Soil Types

CONSTRUCTION OF DAM
●Frame Structures
●Topography
●Foundations
●Geology of dam sites competent rocks for safety
foundation ROAD CUTTING

●Geology of dam sites effects of associated - A cut or cutting is where soil or rock from a relative
geological structures rise along a route is removed. Cuts are typically used
in road, rail, and canal construction to reduce the
length and grade of a route.

TUNNELS GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR

CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD CUTTING
- A tunnel is a subterranean or undersea passage
constructed by excavating through the surrounding ●Topography
soil, earth, or rock, or by being laid beneath water.
●Geological Structures
Geological discontinuities and associated
strength and deformation behavior ●Weathering

●Folds- are sometimes the natural traps of natural ●Groundwater Conditions

gasses, which might be harmful to the ●persons
working on the tunnel.

Faults – The orientation of faults in relation to the

tunnel line is vitally important since this govern the
length of the tunnel affected by the faults and its
accompanying fault zones

●Joints- are structural plane of weakness and

greatly affect shear strength of properties of rock and
rock masse

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR

CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

● Groundwater conditions

●Gasses in rocks

●Rock Temperature

●Topographical Conditions