8.

3 Stack Organization
 Stack: A storage device that stores
information in such a manner that the item
stored last is the first item retrieved.

 Also called last-in first-out (LIFO) list.

Useful for compound arithmetic operations
and nested subroutine calls.
8.3 Stack Organization
 • Stack pointer (SP): A register that holds
the address of the top item in the stack.
SP always points at the top item in the
stack
 • Push: Operation to insert an item into the
stack.
• Pop: Operation to retrieve an item from the
stack.
REGISTER STACK
• A stack can be
organized as a
collection of a finite
number of registers.
 REGISTER STACK
• In a 64-word stack, the
stack pointer contains 6 bits.
• The one-bit register FULL
is set to 1 when the stack is
full;
EMPTY register is 1 when
the stack is empty.
• The data register DR holds
the data to be written into or
read from the stack.
 The following are the micro-operations
associated with the stack

Initialization
SP 0, EMPTY 1, FULL 0
Push
SP SP + 1
M[SP] DR
If (SP = 0) then (FULL 1) Note
that SP becomes 0 after 63
EMPTY 0
 The following are the micro-operations
associated with the stack

Pop
DR M[SP]
SP SP - 1
If (SP = 0) then (EMPTY 1)
FULL 0
STACK OPERATIONS
REVERSE POLISH NOTATION (postfix)
 Reverse polish notation :is a postfix
notation (places operators after operands)

 (Example)
Infix notation A+B
Reverse Polish notation AB+ also called
postfix.
STACK OPERATIONS
REVERSE POLISH NOTATION (postfix)
 A stack organization is very effective for
evaluating arithmetic expressions

 A * B + C * D  (AB *)+(CD *) 
AB * CD * +
 ( 3 * 4 ) + ( 5 * 6 )  34 * 56 * +
STACK OPERATIONS
REVERSE POLISH NOTATION (postfix)
n • Evaluation procedure:

n 1. Scan the expression from left to right.

2. When an operator is reached, perform the operation with the
two operands found on the left side of the operator.
3. Replace the two operands and the operator by the result
obtained from the operation.

n (Example)
infix 3 * 4 + 5 * 6 = 42
postfix 3 4 * 5 6 * +

n 12 5 6 * +
12 30 +
42
STACK OPERATIONS
REVERSE POLISH NOTATION (postfix)
 • Reverse Polish notation evaluation with a stack.
Stack is the most efficient way for evaluating
arithmetic expressions.

stack evaluation:
Get value
If value is data: push data
Else if value is operation: pop, pop
evaluate and push.
STACK OPERATIONS
REVERSE POLISH NOTATION (postfix)
 (Example) using stacks to do
this.
3 * 4 + 5 * 6 = 42
=> 3 4 * 5 6 * +
 8.4 Instruction Formats
• The most common fields in instruction formats are:
1. Mode field: Specifies the way the effective address is determined
2. Operation code: Specifies the operations to be performed.
3. Address field: Designates a memory address or a processor
register

Mode Opcode Address

8.4 Instruction Formats
• Zero address instruction: Stack is used. Arithmetic operation
pops two operands from the stack and pushes the result.

• One address instructions: AC and memory. Since the

accumulator always provides one operand, only one memory
address needs to be specified.
•Two address instructions: Two address registers or two
memory locations are specified, one for the final result.
•Three address instructions: Three address registers or
memory locations are specified, one for the final result.
It is also called general address organization.
Zero address instructions
Instruction: ADD
Push and pop operations need to specify one address involved in
data transfer.

Stack-organized computer does not use an address field for

the instructions ADD, and MUL

Instruction: POP X
Evaluate X = ( A + B ) * ( C + D )

PUSH, and POP instructions need an address field to

specify the operand
 Zero address instructions

PUSH A TOS  A
PUSH B TOS  B
ADD TOS  ( A  B )
PUSH C TOS  C
PUSH D TOS  D
ADD TOS  (C  D )
MUL TOS  (C  D )  ( A  B)
POP X X  TOS

Advantages: No memory addresses needed during the operation.

Disadvantages: results in longer program codes.
One address instructions
 One address can be a register name or memory
address.
 SINGLE ACCUMULATOR ORGANIZATION

 Since the accumulator always provides one operands,

only one memory address needs to be specified.
Instruction: ADD X
Microoperation: AC AC + M[X]
 One address instructions

LOAD A AC  M [ A]
ADD B AC  AC  M [ B ]
STORE T M [T ]  AC

 All operations are done between the AC register and memory operand

Advantages: fewer bits are needed to specify the address.

Disadvantages: results in writing long programs.
Two address instructions
 • Assumes that the destination address
is the same as that of the first operand.
Can be a memory address or a register
name.

 Instruction: ADD R1, R2

Microoperation: R1  R1 + R2
Two address instructions

MOV R1, A R1  M [ A]
MOV R2, B R 2  M [ B]
ADD R1, R2 R1  R1  R 2
MOV X, R1 M [ x]  R1

most common in commercial computers

Each address fields specify either a processor register or a

memory operand

Advantages: results in writing medium size programs

Disadvantages: more bits are needed to specify two addresses.
 Three address organization
 GENERAL REGISTER ORGANIZATION

• Three address instructions: Memory addresses for

the two operands and one destination need to be
specified.
Instruction: ADD R1, R2, R3
Microoperation: R1  R2 + R3
ADD R1, R2, R3 R1  R 2  R3

 Advantages: results in writing short programs

Disadvantages: more bits are needed to specify three addresses.
EXAMPLE: Show how can the following operation be
performed using:
a- three address instruction
b- two address instruction
c- one address instruction
d- zero address instruction
X = (A + B) * (C + D)
 a-Three-address instructions
(general register organization)
• ADD R1, A, B
• R1  M[A] + M[B]
• ADD R2, C, D
• R2  M[C] + M[D]
• MUL X, R1, R2
• M[X]  R1 * R2
 b-Two-address instructions
(general register organization)
• MOV R1, A
• R1  M[A]
• ADD R1, B
• R1  R1 + M[B]
• MOV R2, C
• R2  M[C]
• ADD R2, D
• R2  R2 + M[D]
• MOV X, R2
• M[X] R2
• MUL X, R1
• M[X]  R1 * M[X]
 c- One-address instructions
• LOAD A
• AC M[A]
• ADD B
• AC  AC + M[B]
• STORE T
• M[T ] AC
• LOAD C
• AC  M[C]
• ADD D
• AC  AC + M[D]
• MUL T
• AC  AC * M[T ]
• STORE X
• M[X]  AC Store
 d- Zero-address instructions
(stack organization)
• Push value
• Else If operator is encountered: Pop, pop, operation, push
• Pop operand pop another operand then perform an
operation and push the result back into the stack.

• PUSH A TOS  A Push

• PUSH B TOS  B
• ADD TOS  (A+B) Pop, pop, operation, push
• PUSH C TOS  C
• PUSH D TOS  D
• ADD TOS  (C+D)
• MUL TOS  (C+D)*(A+B)
• POP X M[X]  TOS
• (*TOS stands for top of stack).