Nutrition in humans

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are:
 organic molecules
 made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
 The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are present in the
ratio 2:1
• Examples: Glucose has the formula C6H12O6
(the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 12H:6O= 2:1).
 Sucrose (cane sugar) has the formula C12H22O11
(the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is H:O= 22:11= 2:1 ).
 Classification of carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides Disaccharides (many/ complex sugars)
(single sugar) (double sugar) Starch(storage organs
Glucose(plants+animals) Maltose(germinating like potato )
Fructose(common in grains) Cellulose(cell wall of
plants rare in animals) Sucrose(carrot) plants)
Galactose (milk sugar) Lactose(milk sugar) Glycogen(stored in liver
and muscles)
• Glucose+ Glucose→ Maltose+ Water
• Sucrose+ Fructose → Sucrose + water
• Glucose+ Galactose → Lactose + water
• Condensation Reaction:
• A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction
in which two simple sugar molecules are
joined togeather to form a larger molecule
with the removal of water.
• Glucose+ Glucose→ Maltose+ Water
Hydrolysis or hydrolytic reaction:
• It is a reaction in which a water molecule is
needed to break up a complex molecule into
smaller molecules.
• A double sugar can be split into two single
sugar molecules by using enzyme. E.g
maltase
• Maltose+ Water → Glucose + Glucose
Identification tests
• For Reducing sugars:
• Benedict’s Test:
• 1. Place 2cm3 of food sample into test tube.
• 2. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution to the food
sample.
• 3. Shake the mixture and place the tube in
boiling water bath for 2-3 minutes.
 Results:
Colour Changes Amount of reducing sugar present
Solution remained blue No reducing sugar.

Blue to green precipitates. Traces of reducing sugar.

Blue to yellow or orange precipitates. Moderate amount of reducing sugar.

Blue to brick red precipitates Large amount of reducing sugar.

 Identification of starch:
• Iodine Test:
• A few drops of iodine solution added to any substance containing
starch (potato) will produce blue black colour.
Functions of Carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are needed:
• as a substrate for Respiration…….to provide energy for cell activities.
• To form supporting structures……. E.g cell wall in plants.
• To be converted into other organic compounds such as amino acids
and fats.
• For the formation of nucleic acids…… e.g DNA.
• To synthesise lubricants……. E.g mucus consisting of protein and
carbohydrate.
• To synthesise the nectar in some flowers.
 2) Proteins
• Chemical composition:
• Organic compounds made up of elements like
carbon. hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
• Proteins are made when many amino acids
combine together.
• Inside the body there are twenty types of amino
acids which combine together in a different way
to form thousands of proteins.
• Sources:
• Meat, eggs, milk, beans etc.
Functions of proteins:
• Involved in synthesis of protoplasm.
• Enzymes are protein in nature.
• Repair of tissues.
• Blood clotting.
• Antibodies (involved in immunity) are made up of
proteins.
• Deficiency of protein:
• Kwashiorkor Symptoms:
• Swollen abdomens.
• Dry scaly skin.
• Weak muscles.
 Identification of proteins:
• Biuret Test:
• The biuret solution is a blue solution made up
of sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate. It
turns to violet when proteins are present.
 3) Lipids(triglycerides)
• Chemical composition:
• Organic compounds made up of three elements Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• Contain high proportion of carbon and hydrogen and very low oxygen.
• Example: tristearin (beef fat) has the formula C57 H110 O6).
• Structure:
• Made when fatty acids combine with glycerol.
lipase

• Tristearin + Water→ Glycerol + Stearic acid

• Properties of triglycerides:
• Less dense than water.
Types:
• Saturated Unsaturated
• Fatty acid chain is straight. Fatty acid chain may have kinks or bent at certain point.
• Solid at room temperature e.g butter Liquid at room temperature e.g olive oil
• More C-H bonds less C-H bonds
• Animals Plants
 Functions of lipids:
• Excellent energy reserves.
• Prevents heat loss from the body.
• Synthesis of cuticle in plants which prevents
excessive water loss from leaves.
• Protects body organs from physical damage.
• Excessive fats intake leads to obesity which
increases the risk of heart diseases and
diabetes.
 Identification test for Fats:
• Ethanol emulsion test:
• A cloudy white emulsion is formed when
ethanol and water are added to fats. An
emulsion is a suspension of small drops of
liquid in another liquid.
 Vitamins:
• Vitamin C:
• Dietary sources:
• Lemons, oranges, fresh green vegetables etc.
• Functions:
• Proper development of gums.
• Development of hair follicles.
• Development of epithelium.
• Deficiency:
• Scurvy, bleeding gums, dry scaly itchy skin and
weakness etc.
 Vitamin D:

• Dietary sources:
• Milk, dairy products, egg yolk, spinach, beans, fish etc.
• Functions:
• Proper development and strengthening of bones.
• Deficiency:
• Vitamin D is essential for strong bones, because it
helps the body use calcium from the diet.
Traditionally, vitamin D deficiency has been associated
with rickets, a disease in which the bone tissue
doesn't properly mineralize, leading to soft bones and
skeletal deformities.
 Calcium:
• Dietary sources:
• Milk, dairy products and avocado.
• Functions:
• Proper development and strengthening of bones and teeth.
• Deficiency:
• More severe calcium deficiency symptoms can include:
• Mental confusion, irritability, depression, and anxiety.
• Tooth decay.
• Insufficient blood clotting.
• Bone fractures.
• Osteoporosis.
• Growth and development delays in children.
• Heart problems involving blood pressure.
 Iron:
• Dietary sources:
• Red meat (beef and lamb), liver, apples, spinach, lentils etc.
• Functions:
• Synthesis of haemoglobin.
• Strength of joints and muscles.
• Deficiency:
• Anaemia:
• Weakness, tiredness, breathlessness.
• Weak joints and muscles.
• Numbness of hand and feet.
• Pale skin.
 Fibre/ Roughages:
• Dietary sources:
• Salad, leafy vegetables, bread, bananas, bran
etc.
• Functions:
• Proper working of digestive system.
• Deficiency:
• Constipation.
• Symptoms: Hard faeces
 Balanced diet and food values:
• Balanced diet:
A balanced diet contains the right amount of carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water and roughage to meet
the daily requirements of the body.
Factors affecting the balanced diet:
Climate: A person living in a cold country lose more heat and
require more energy to maintain his body temperature.
Body size: Those with bigger bodies require more food.
Age: Growing children require more energy for growth.
Gender: Men normally have high heat production than women of
same body size and age as men have smaller amount of fatty
tissue in their bodies. Thus prevention of heat loss is less
efficient in men than women.
Health: The thyroid gland in neck controls the metabolic rate by secreting a hormone called thyroxin. If someone has under
active thyroid

In efficient thyroxin is produced which results in

lower metabolic rate. An over- active thyroid
produces too much hormone thus speeding
up the metabolic rate.
Occupation: If you are very active and do heavy
work you need more energy than the
sedentary one.
 Problems of world food supply:
• Starvation.
• Malnutrition.
• Over- nutrition.
• Famine.
• Starvation: It occurs when a human or animal does
not receive enough energy in their diet.
• To meet basic metabolic needs body starts to use:
Use of Fat or glycogen→ use of protein(muscles
usage) →Use of Heart muscles ( weakening of
heart).
Malnutrition:
• It also due to dietary imbalance.
• It may be due to a deficiency or an excess intake of
nutrients over a period of time e.g protein deficiency
disease or Kwashiorkor and scurvy, constipation etc
and obesity due to excess intake of nutrients.
• Causes:
• Economic constraints.
• Poor eating habits due to lack of nutrional knowledge.
• Unwillingness to follow nutrional guidelines.
 Famine:
• A famine is a widespread scarcity of food
, caused by several factors including war,
inflation, crop failure, population imbalance,
or government policies. 
 Nutrition:
• The intake of food and the processes that convert the food
substances into living matter are known as nutrition.
• Nutrition comprises of the following:
• Feeding------- the intake of food into the body.
• Digestion------- The process whereby large food molecules are
broken down into soluble and diffusable molecules that can
be absorbed into body cells.
• Absorption------ The process whereby digested food materials
are taken into the body cells.
• Assimilation------ the process whereby some of absorbed food
materials are converted into new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.
 Types of digestion:
• Digestion may be:
• Physical or mechanical.
• Chemical.
• Physical digestion: It is the mechanical
breakdown of food into smaller particles
increasing the surface area of the food for
enzyme action.
• Chemical digestion: It is the enzymatic
hydrolysis of food substances.
Difference between Ingestion and Egestion:

• The main difference between ingestion and

egestion is that ingestion is the intake of food
into the body whereas egestion is the
elimination of wastes out of the
body. Ingestion occurs through the mouth in
animals. ... The elimination of wastes of the
digestion occurs through the anus in animals.
Main Regions of alimentary canal:
 Main regions of alimentary canal:
• 1) Mouth and Buccal cavity:
• The main regions of buccal cavity are:
• Tongue.
• Teeth
• Salivery glands.
• Palate.
• Ulva.
2) Pharynx:
• It is the part of gut which leads from mouth to oesophagus
and to the trachea by the way of larynx or voice box.
• Larynx bears a slit like opening called glottis.
• The pharynx is common passage for food and air.
• There is a possibility of food passing into the trachea during
swallowing. This is prevented by piece of flap like cartilage
called epiglottis.
• The epiglottis is above the larynx just behind the root of
tongue.
• During swallowing the larynx moves up so that larynx is
covered by epiglottis and no particles can enter the trachea.
3) Oesophagus or food pipe:
• This tube pushes the food to stomach by rhythmic
contractions. There are two sets of muscles in the
oesophagus:
• Circular muscles: They make the oesophagus
narrower.
• Longitudinal muscles: These make the oesophagus
wider.
• They work in coordination with each other to force
the food downward to the stomach in rhythmic
wave. This is the way food moves all the way along
the alimentary canal. It is called peristalsis.
 Peristalsis:
• The wavelike muscular contractions in tubular structures (esophagus
and the intestines) is known as Peristalsis. It is characterized by
alternate contraction and relaxation, which pushes ingested food
through the digestive tract towards its release at the anus.
• Muscles involved in peristalsis:
• Two muscles are involved in peristalsis:
• Circular muscles.
• longitudinal muscles.
• The two sets of muscles work in such a way that when one contracts
the other relaxes.
• In much of a digestive tract peristaltic movement comprises
contraction of circular muscles and relaxation of longitudinal behind
the chewed material to keep it from moving backward, then
longitudinal contraction and relaxation of circular muscles to push the
food forward.
 4) Stomach:
• Here the food stays for a while. The stomach is a
flexible bag that performs both mechanical and
chemical digestion.
• Mechanical digestion: The walls of stomach contains
muscles that contract and relax together mixing the
food with the contents of the stomach and turning it
into liquid chyme this process is called churning.
• Chemical digestion: The walls of stomach also
secrete a liquid called gastric juice which contains
Hydrochloric acid, mucus and pepsin enzyme.
• Pepsin: The pepsin enzyme digests protein into
simple poly peptides.
• Hydrochloric acid: It provides optimum pH for
enzymes. It also helps to kill injested bacteria.
• Mucus: It lubricates the food and protects the
walls of stomach from acid.
• After a few hours the sphincter which is a
muscular valve open allowing the food into
small intestine.
 Small intestine:
• Structure:
• It consist of a U- shaped duodenum, the jejunum and much coiled
ileum.
• In humans small intestine is 6m long.
• Lining of wall of small intestine contains glands which secrete digestive
enzymes.
• Digestion in small intestine:
• In the small intestine the chyme stimulates:
• The intestinal glands to secrete intestinal juice(maltase,
sucrase,lactase
• The pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice which passes through
pancreatic duct into duodenum.
• The gall bladder to release bile. The bile passes through the bile duct
into the duodenum.
Large intestine
Causes of dental decay:
 Prevention from tooth decay:

• avoiding foods with a high sugar content

• using toothpaste and drinking water
containing fluoride
• regular, effective brushing to prevent the
build-up of plaque (a sticky layer on the teeth)
• Visit your dentist regularly.
 Absorption in small intestine:
• Absorption is the movement of digested food
molecules through the wall of the intestine into
the blood or lymph.
• The small intestine is the region where digested
food is absorbed. Most absorption happens in
the ileum. This is the longest part of the small
intestine and is between 2-4 metres long. The
small intestine has a large internal surface area
for absorption to happen quickly and efficiently.
Structure of villi
 Adaptations of Villi:
• The villi (one is called a villus) are tiny, finger-shaped
structures that increase the surface area. They have several
important features:
• wall just one cell thick - ensures that there is only a short
distance for absorption to happen by diffusion and active
transport
• network of blood capillaries - transports glucose and amino
acids away from the small intestine in the blood
• internal structure called a lacteal - transports fatty
acids and glycerol away from the small intestine in the
lymph
The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food
from the small intestine to the liver.