MACHINE DESIGN

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UNITS
In the symbolic units equation for Newton’s second law, F ma,

F = MLT−2 ---------- (i)

F stands for force, M for mass, L for length, and T for time.
Units chosen for any three of these quantities are called base units.
The first three having been chosen, the fourth unit is called a derived
unit.
When force, length, and time are chosen as base units, the mass is the
derived unit and the system that results is called a gravitational system
of units.
When mass, length, and time are chosen as base units, force is the
derived unit and the system that results is called an absolute system of
units.
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UNITS
In some English-speaking countries, the U.S. customary
foot-pound-second system (fps) and the inch-pound-second
system (ips) are the two standard gravitational systems most
used by engineers.
In the fps system the unit of mass is
M = FT2/L = lbf-s2 / ft. = slug --------------- (i)

Thus, length, time, and force are the three base units in the
fps gravitational system.

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The unit of force in the fps system is the pound, more
properly the pound-force.

We shall often abbreviate this unit as lbf; the abbreviation lb

is permissible however, since we shall be dealing only with
the U.S. customary gravitational system. In some branches of
engineering it is useful to represent 1000 lbf as a kilopound
and to abbreviate it as kip.

Note: In Eq. (i) the derived unit of mass in the fps

gravitational system is the lbf · s2/ft and is called a slug;
there is no abbreviation for slug.

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The unit of mass in the ips gravitational system is

M = FT2/L = lbf-s2 / in. --------------- (ii)

The mass unit lbf · s2/in has no official name

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The International System of Units (SI) is an absolute system.
The base units are the meter, the kilogram (for mass), and the second.
The unit of force is derived by using Newton’s second law and is called
the newton.
The units constituting the newton (N) are

F = ML / T2 = kh-m / s2 = N --------------- (iii)

The weight of an object is the force exerted upon it by gravity.

Designating the weight as W and the acceleration due to gravity as g,
we have

W = mg

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In the fps system, standard gravity is g = 32.1740 ft/s2. For
most cases this is rounded off to 32.2. Thus the weight of a
mass of 1 slug in the fps system is
W = mg = (1 slug)(32.2 ft /s2) = 32.2 lbf
In the ips system, standard gravity is 386.088 or about 386
in/s2.
Thus, in this system, a unit mass weighs
W = (1 lbf · s2/in)(386 in/s2) = 386 lbf

With SI units, standard gravity is 9.806 or about 9.81 m/s.

Thus, the weight of a 1-kg mass is
W = (1 kg)(9.81 m/s2) = 9.81N

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 MATERIALS
The selection of a material for a machine part or a structural
member is one of the most important decisions the designer is
called on to make. The decision is usually made before the
dimensions of the part are established. After choosing the
process of creating the desired geometry and the material (the
two cannot be divorced), the designer can proportion the
member so that loss of function can be avoided or the chance
of loss of function can be held to an acceptable risk.

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 MATERIAL STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of
material characteristics and strengths that are used in design.
•Figure illustrates a typical tension-test specimen and its
characteristic dimensions.

•The original diameter d0 and the gauge length l0, used to measure
the deflections, are recorded before the test is begun. The specimen
is then mounted in the test machine and slowly loaded in tension
while the load P and deflection are observed. The load is converted
to stress by the calculation

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MATERIAL STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS

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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

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HARDNESS
The resistance of a material to penetration by a pointed tool
is called hardness.

Rockwell hardness tests are described by ASTM standard

hardness method and measurements are quickly and easily
made, they have good reproducibility, and the test machine
for them is easy to use. In fact, the hardness number is read
directly from a dial.
Rockwell hardness scales are designated as A, B,C, . . . , etc.
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HARDNESS
• The indenters are described as a diamond, a 1/16 in
diameter ball, and a diamond for scales A, B, and C,
respectively, where the load applied is either 60, 100, or
150 kg.
• Thus the Rockwell B scale, designated RB, uses a 100-kg
load and a No. 2 indenter, which is a 1 16 -in-diameter
ball.
• The Rockwell C scale RC uses a diamond cone, which is
the No. 1 indenter, and a load of 150 kg.
• Hardness numbers so obtained are relative. Therefore a
hardness RC = 50 has meaning only in relation to another
hardness number using the same scale.

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HARDNESS
The Brinell hardness is another test in very general use. In testing, the
indenting tool through which force is applied is a ball and the hardness
number HB is found as a number equal to the applied load divided by the
spherical surface area of the indentation.
•Thus the units of HB are the same as those of stress, though they are
seldom used.
•Brinell hardness testing takes more time, since HB must be computed
from the test data.
•The primary advantage of both methods is that they are nondestructive in
most cases.
•Both are empirically and directly related to the ultimate strength of the
material tested.
•This means that the strength of parts could, if desired, be tested part by
part during manufacture.

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 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM:
FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS:
Ductile Materials:
•Ductile materials are those which are capable of having
large strains before they are fractured.
•Ductile materials can withstand high stress and are also
capable of absorbing large amount of energy before their
failure.
•A ductile material has a large Percentage of elongation
before failure.
•Some examples of ductile materials are aluminum, mild
steel and some of its alloys i.e. copper, magnesium, brass,
nickel, bronze and many others.

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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (PL)
Proportional limit is the point on stress strain curve
which shows the highest stress at which Stress and
Strain are linearly proportional to each other where the
proportionality constant is E known as modulus of
elasticity. Above this point, stress is no longer linearly
proportional to strain.
On stress strain curve, proportional limit is shown by P.
It is denoted by σPL.
For annealed mild steel the limit of proportionality
occurs at 230 MPa.

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The above graph shows that the length of graph up
to proportional limit (P) is a straight line which
means that up to proportional limit stress is linearly
proportional to strain.

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ELASTIC LIMIT (EL)
• Elastic limit is the point which shows the
maximum stress that can be applied to the body
without resulting in permanent deformation when
stress is removed.
• At elastic limit when the load is removed from the
body, it returns to original size and shape.
• At elastic limit stress is no longer linearly
proportional to strain. It is denoted by σEL.
• For stress strain graph of mild steel, elastic limit is
just close to proportional limit.

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YIELD POINT (Y)
• Yield point is the point which shows the stress at
which a little or no increase in stress results to large
increase in strain that is material continues to
deform without increase in load.
• At this point the material will have permanent
deformation. It is denoted by σY.
• For steel, yield point is also just above proportional
limit. Yield point is of two types:
– Upper yield point.
– Lower yield point.

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Upper yield point is shown by Y1 and lower yield point is
shown by Y2 as in diagram given below:

Among the common materials, only steel exhibits yield point.

For annealed mild steel, upper yield point occurs at 260 MPa
and lower yield point occurs at 230 MPa.
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ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH (U)
• As the stress on material is increased further, the
stress and the strain increases from yield point to a
point called ultimate tensile strength (UTS) where
stress applied is maximum.
• Thus ultimate tensile strength can be defined as the
highest stress on the specimen which it can
withstand.
• For annealed mild steel, ultimate tensile strength
occurs at 400 MPa.
• It is denoted by σU.

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ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH (U)
• As the stress on material is increased further, the
stress and the strain increases from yield point to a
point called ultimate tensile strength (UTS) where
stress applied is maximum.
• Thus ultimate tensile strength can be defined as the
highest stress on the specimen which it can
withstand.
• For annealed mild steel, ultimate tensile strength
occurs at 400 MPa.
• It is denoted by σU.

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FRACTURE STRESS (F)

• After ultimate tensile strength, the

applied stress decreases until the stress
is obtained where material fractures
called fracture stress.
• Fracture stress is also called breaking
strength.
• It is denoted by σF.

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Different Regions under Area of Stress Strain Curve:
This is the general diagram of stress strain curve, which elaborates different
regions under stress strain curve.

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Elastic region:

Elastic region is the area under the curve from

initial point to elastic limit. In this region

material will return to its original size and

shape when load is removed from the body.

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Plastic region:

Plastic region is the area under curve which starts

from elastic limit to fracture point. Under the area

body shows plastic behavior i.e. when the load is

removed from body, it does not come back to its

original size and shape.

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Yielding region:
This region starts from elastic limit to yield point
where the body produces strain with a little or no
increase in load.

Strain Hardening;
Area from upper yield point to ultimate tensile
stress is called strain hardening. Under this area the
body will elongate only with increasing the stress
until the stress is at maximum point whereas the
cross sectional area will decrease uniformly.
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Necking:
•Necking covers the area from ultimate tensile
stress to fracture point.
•It is the region where cross sectional area of
material will decrease in a localized spot and
capacity of material to carry load will decrease.
• In necking region, stress strain curve as neck like
curve.

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BRITTLE MATERIALS:
• Brittle materials are those which break suddenly under
stress at a point just beyond elastic limit.

• They have little or no yielding before failure and their

percentage of elongation is very low.

• If percentage elongation is equal to or less than 5%, we

consider that material brittle.

• Brittle materials include glass, concrete, cast iron and

plaster

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties:
The properties which determine the applications and
behavior of materials are called mechanical properties of the
materials. Mechanical properties are helpful in identification
of materials because every material has its own identical
properties and also tell the usefulness of materials.
Mechanical properties are determined through a series of
standardized mechanical tests such that Hardness and Tensile
testing, Torque testing, Shear testing, Fatigue testing, micro
hardness testing, Bend testing and many more.

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Ductility:
Ductility is the measure of deformation in a material which
it can withstand before fracturing. The most common
measure of ductility is the percentage of change in Ductility
is generally measured by percentage elongation.

Percentage elongation = l1 - l0 / lo x 100

High values of percentage elongation indicate that material

is very ductile whereas low values indicate that material is
brittle and has low ductility. For mild steel, the percentage
elongation usually is 20%. Gold is most ductile material.

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Brittleness:
•Brittleness is the opposite of ductility.

•It is the property of material to fracture just after

elastic limit when stress is applied on it.
•It is also measured by percentage elongation.

• Clay, glass and ceramics are some brittle

materials.

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Malleability:

•The ability of material to bend or to be hammered

in all the directions without any fracture is called
malleability.
•Malleable materials can be deformed to thin and
flat sheets.
•Most of the malleable materials are also ductile.
Gold, iron, aluminum, lead and copper (to some
extent) are some examples of malleable material.

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