Index of refraction (n) is the ratio of the velocity of light in a

vacuum to the velocity of light in a material.

The speed of light in a vacuum is equal to 3x 108 m/s

The higher the index of refraction, the slower the speed of

light through the material.

Index of Refraction = Light velocity (vacuum)

Light velocity (material)
Fiber is either single mode or multimode.
Fiber sizes are expressed by using two numbers: 8/125.
The first number refers to the core size in microns.
The second number refers to the core plus the cladding size

Fiber construction
Advantages of Optical Fibers for
Telecommunications
• Low transmission loss
• Enormous bandwidth
• Immune to electromagnetic noise
• Low cost
• High chemical stability
• Natural abundance of material
• Light weight and small dimensions
• Strong, flexible material
 Optical fiber
x
max
 n1
0  critical core
n0 cladding n2
n
Numerical aperture (N.A.): Acceptance cone within which all
bound rays are contained. It is an ability of an optical fiber to
capture light from a wide angle source such as a LED.
Large N. A.  high source to fiber coupling efficiency
Small N. A.  low source to fiber coupling efficiency
 max
2 n1
0 1 critical core
n0 cladding n2
n
n2
n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 sin θcritical 
n1
From figure -

N. A. = sin max , for max, the incident angle at the interface

will be critical
 At the air – core interface, according to Snell’s Law
sin i n 2 n1 sin θ 0
 , becomes 
sin r n1 n0 sin θ
1
sinθ max n1
 ,  sin θ max  n1sinθ1  n1cosθ critical As θ  90  θ
sinθ1 1 1 2
while at the interface between core and clad the Snell's law becomes
n 2 sin θ 2
 ,
n1 sin r
at θ max , θθ , and sin r  sin 90  1
2 critical
and sin θ 2 will be sin θ
critical
n 2 sin θ critical
 ,
n1 1

But N.A.  sin θ max  n1 cos θ critical

But N.A.  sin θ max  n1 cos θ critical
 n1 1  sin 2θ critical
n 22
 n1 1  2  n12  n 22
n1

Hence N.A.  sin θ max  n12  n 22

 Lightwave Evolution
• 1975: Coax, 274 Mb/s at 1km repeater spacing
• 1980: 0.8 um GaAs lasers, MMF, 45 Mb/s @ 10km
• 1987: 1.3 um InGaAsP lasers, SMF, 1.7 Gb/s @
50km
• 1990s: 1.55 um InGaAsP DFB lasers, SMF, 2.5-10
Gb/s @ 40km
• 1990s: WDM, 1.55 um InGaAsP DFB lasers, EDFA,
SMF, 2.5-10 Gb/s @ 300-10,000km repeater spacing
• 2002: 64 WDM chx 10Gbps over 250,000 km span
 WDM Optical System
Frequency-registered Receivers
transmitters
Optical Fiber
1 R

2 R
WDM WDM
3 Mux Amp Amp DeMux R

40 - 120 km

N
Up to 10,000 km R

 = 25 - 100 GHz
(0.4 or 0.8 nm @ 1500 nm)
 Optical fibers are cylindrical dielectric
waveguides

Typical dimensions
Core diameter 2a = 9 to 62.5 μm , Cladding diameter 2b = 125 μm

Typical values of refractive indices

Core: n1 = 1.461
Cladding: n2 = 1.460
Single Mode and Multimode Characteristics
Dispersion parameter:
D = DM + DW

DM (Material Dispersion):
DW (Waveguide dispersion):
Fiber Connectors
 Fiber optic splices, connectors, and couplers
core guided power after the joint
Efficiency of the joint 
core guided power before the joint
P1
η
P0
P0  P1
 Power lost at the coupling  1  η  Λ 
P0

Coupling loss in decibels = L = - 10 log 

n0

n1 P0

P1 n1
Coupling Losses can be extrinsic or intrinsic losses.
Extrinsic Losses :
Alignment errors are caused by mechanical imperfection in
the jointing techniques
• Separation between the fiber ends
• Lateral displacement of the core axes
• Angular misalignment of the fiber axes
• Poor quality of the fiber end faces
Intrinsic Losses :
Due to mismatches between fiber parameters
• Core diameter
• Cladding diameter
• Index difference between core and cladding i. e. mismatch in
numerical aperture
• Profile shape or mismatch in geometrical profile
• Connectivity error between core and cladding
• Core ellipticity
 Extrinsic Losses

Typical fiber losses at connector are 0.30 dB to 0.35 dB

Separation loss

Lateral Displacement
 Angular misalignment

Face tilt

Face roughness
 Intrinsic Losses

2a1 2a2 2b1 2b2

Core Diameter Clad Diameter

n
NA1 NA2
n1

n2

Numerical aperture r

c Profile shape

h Ellipticity
Concentricity error
 Splices

• Fiber splicing is needed to permanently join optical cables

when the system span is longer than available factory cable
lengths or by other reasons the available lengths are limited.
• To keep splicing losses less than 0.1 dB it is requred to keep
lateral misalignment in splicing to about
• 0.75m for 10 m (core size) single mode
• below 3 m for 50 m (core size) graded index
multimode
 Splices

Mechanical Splices Fusion Splices Mass Splicing

Capillary Splicing Groove Splicing

Mechanical Splices : (Uses Fixtures for good alignment)

Hole

Optical fiber

Ceramic or glass capillary

Capillary Splices:
• Glass or Ceramic capillary, with inner diameter only
slightly larger than the outer diameter of the fiber
• Very simple splicing device
• The fiber ends are gently inserted into the capillary and a
transparent glue ( usually epoxy adhesive) is then injected
though a small, transverse hole.
• The glue ensures both efficient bonding and good index
matching.
• Disadvantage: Large diameter for clearance causes lateral
misalignment and too tight clearance makes fiber insertion
difficult
 Spring Fiber

Precision rods

Retainer

Spring Groove
Spring
Fiber

Precision rods

Cross section of V groove

 Fusion Splices

• An Efficient way to permanently join optical fibers in the field.

• Using this technique two fiber ends are welded together with
the possibility of recreating almost perfect continuity of the
dielectric waveguide
• Arc discharge is widely used as a heating source, other sources
used are micro flame or CO2 laser

Electrode
Movable alignment plate
Fiber
 Fusion Splicing Process :
1. First the fiber ends are cleaved carefully
2. Fibers are aligned by means of a precision jig
3. Initial alignment of the fibers is done with inspection microscope
4. Apply a short discharge while the fibers are separated by a short
gap (This step eliminates possible surface defects, core distortion or bubble
formation during the next step)

5. After accurate alignment of fibers final step involves butting the

fibers together with the appropriate pressure while the main
discharge is applied
6. During the fusion process, the self alignment of the fiber ends
During fusion, when the glass becomes soft, surface tension tends
to align the outer surface of the fibers.
(1) Electrode Electrode (3)

Fiber Fiber

Fusion splicing steps

Electrode
(2)
Electric
(1) Alignment
Arc (2) Prefusion
Fiber (3) Fusion
Prolonged fusion core cladding non concentricity

Before fusion Before fusion

During fusion During fusion

After fusion After fusion

Before fusion

After fusion

During fusion Quick and Narrow fusion technique

Mass Splicing

For applications involving high fiber count cable (communication

for 100 fiber count) mass splicing technique is used
It can be used in the form of multiribben cables

Fiber

12 x 12 multiribbon substrate