Flow Measurement and

Calculation

Test calculations performed

manually
or
computerized
 Flow Measurement and
Calculation
1- Manual manner
depends on Standard Tables and Charts for
conversion and correction related to flow
parameters using certain equations to calculate
desired flow rates.
 Flow Measurement and
Calculation
2- Computerised manner
depends on electronic sensors connected to
a laboratory computerized system finally
showing well parameters and calculated
flow rates.
NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
The principle of measurement
A fluid flowing through a line can be measured by placing a constriction in the line
to cause the pressure to drop as it passes the constriction. This pressure drop is called
the Differential Pressure in inches of water head. A direct relationship exists between
the rate of flow and the amount of this pressure differential. The orifice meter is used
to apply this principle.

Units of Measurement
Measurement of gas requires the unit of volume to be defined. In other words, the
unit, temperature base, pressure base, and other factors must be specified or
determined. The bases most likely to find acceptance are 60 F (520 R) and 14.73 psia.
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Orifice Meters

The Orifice Meter:

Primary element (Meter tube, flanges, orifice, etc.)
Secondary element (The recorder).
The Measured Factors:
Differential pressure.
Flowing pressure (static pressure).
Other measurements and factors, such as Temperature and Specific gravity.
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Orifice Meters

Primary Element
The meter run, meter fittings
or flange unions, and the
orifice plate, which make
up the primary element of
a meter setting, should be
a shop-fabricated unit
manufactured by a
reputable manufacturer of
such equipment.
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Orifice Meters

• Orifice :
1- The hole should be clean, a circular, and rounded hole.
2- A thin flat plate of stainless steel.
3- Not pitted or damaged.
4- The inlet hole should be sharp.
5- the beveled orifice (outer edge) should be installed with the beveled
downstream.

• An orifice plate produces a change in velocity of the gas causing differential

pressure.
• A beveled 1/8 inches thick orifice plate is required in meter runs which are 8
inches and smaller.
Straightening Vanes
 Flange Tabs

• Differential tabs:
Flange Tabs
 LIQUID FLOW MEASUREMENT
Oil Calculation

then ;
Qo = Vo * 24 / (time increment in hours)
LIQUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

Oil Calculation

Correction Table for

Reduction of observed
API
gravity to API @ 60 deg F
 Liquid Meters

Meter Model Meter

Size Ranges
Range ( gall/min ) Range ( bbl/day )
Type Number (inches) Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Floco F2500 - 1 1 6 60 206 2057
Floco F2500 - 2 2 6 60 206 2057
Floco F2500 - 3 3 9 90 308 3086
Floco F382 2 30 250 1029 8571
Floco F383 3 30 250 1029 8571
Rotron xxxx - 20 2 25 250 857 8571
Rotron xxxx - 30 3 60 650 2057 22286
Rotron xxxx - 40 4 200 1200 6857 41113
Halliburton   1 5 50 170 1700
Halliburton   1.5 15 180 500 6100
Halliburton   2 40 400 1300 13000
Halliburton   3 60 600 2100 21000
Halliburton   4 100 1200 3400 41000
 Gas Calculation Inputs
• Gas Parameters
– Static Pressure taken down stream of the orifice plate
in psia
– Differential Pressure from the DP Cell in Inches of
Water
– Gas Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit
– Gas Gravity ……. As compared to dry air
 Gas Calculation Inputs
• Measurement System Parameters
– Line bore size “D”
– Orifice plate size “d”
– Range of the DP cell
• 0 to100 Inches of water
• 0 to 200 Inches of water
• 0 to 300 Inches of water
• 0 to 400 Inches of water
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5 1293.83 .9723 1.040 1.0039

Qgscf/d = hw x Pf2 x Fb x 1Ftf x Fpv x Y2 x Fu x Fg

 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw o
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg

Unit constant to give output

in standard Cubic feet per day
(14.73 and 60oF)

G= Gas Gravity Measured by a Ranarex

Gravitometer

Fg is a calculated Value equal to the (1/g )

 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5

250 X 141 =35250

35250 = 187.75

Gas Temperature in Degrees F taken

downstream of the orifice Plate
Differential Pressure in Inches of Water
Static Pressure in psia taken downstream of the orifice
Elapsed time since Last Reading
Actual clock Time
ORIFICE METER TABLES
(Gravity Factor)
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5

Orifice Plate size :- stamped on the Plate

Plate should be: Flat 1
Clean
Not pitted or damaged
The hole should be rounded & concentric
The hole should be sharp edged
The beveled (outer edge )edge facing downstream
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5

Fb (Base Orifice factor) - Described as a discharge coefficient.

for a Line bore size “D” and the
1 orifice plate “d”
Ex. 5.761 Inch Line bore……. 2.5 Inch Orifice plate

Fb from tables =
ORIFICE METER TABLES
(Basic Orifice Factor)
 3.826 4.026 4.987 5.189 5.761 6.065 7.625 7.981 8.071
0.25 12.69 12.68
0.375 28.35 28.35
0.5 50.23 50.22 50.19 50.19 50.18 50.18
0.625 78.45 78.42 78.33 78.32 78.30 78.29
0.75 113.15 113.08 112.85 112.82 112.75 112.72
1 202.20 201.99 201.30 201.19 200.96 200.85 200.46 200.39 200.38
1.125 256.69 256.33 255.23 255.08 254.72 254.56 253.99 253.89 253.87
1.25 318.03 317.45 315.71 315.48 314.95 314.72 313.91 313.78 313.74
1.375 386.45 385.51 382.82 382.47 381.70 381.37 380.25 380.06 380.02
1.5 462.27 460.79 456.67 456.16 455.03 454.57 453.02 452.78 452.72
1.625 545.89 543.60 537.39 536.64 535.03 534.38 532.27 531.94 531.87
1.75 637.83 634.39 625.18 624.09 621.79 620.88 618.02 617.60 617.50
1.875 738.75 733.68 720.24 718.69 715.44 714.18 710.32 709.77 709.64
2 849.41 842.12 822.87 820.68 816.13 814.41 809.22 808.50 808.33
2.125 970.95 960.48 933.41 930.35 924.07 921.71 914.78 913.85 913.64
2.25 1104.67 1089.91 1052.27 1048.05 1039.47 1036.28 1027.08 1025.88 1025.61
2.375 1252.10 1231.66 1179.94 1174.21 1162.62 1158.34 1146.21 1144.67 1144.32
2.5 1415.03 1387.18 1316.96 1309.32 1293.83 1288.15 1272.27 1270.29 1269.84
2.625 1595.58 1558.19 1464.01 1453.89 1433.50 1426.03 1405.39 1402.86 1402.29
2.75 1797.13 1746.70 1622.03 1608.66 1582.05 1572.33 1545.70 1542.48 1541.76
2.875 2032.16 1955.48 1791.99 1774.52 1739.97 1727.46 1693.37 1689.31 1688.40
3 970.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5 1293.83

Ftf = Flowing temperature factor.

It is a function of flowing temperature (separator temp.) and corrects for gas
temp .above 60 Degrees F.
Gas at 90 Deg F contracts as1it cools to 60 Deg F
Gas at 50 Deg F expands as it heats to 60 Deg F

90Deg F 60Deg F 50Deg F 60Deg F

Ftf at 90 Deg F Ftf at 50 Deg F

= =
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5 1293.83 .9723

Fpv( super compressibility factor)

Describes the fact that the gas is a mixture of different gasses
and as such it will not obey the Ideal Gas Laws.
P1x V1 = P2 x1V2
T1 T2
Its value is influenced by the gas Pressure, the gas Temperature
and the gas Gravity.
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5 1293.83 .9723 1.040

Y2= Expansion factor

Y2 is described as the “Expansion Factor” - it accounts for the

fact that as the gas passes through
1 the orifice plate it expands
since it drops in pressure.

It is a function of the ratio of the Orifice plate size and the Line
bore size. Ex. d/D = 2.5/5.761 = 0.434
Plus the ratio of the static pressure “Pf2” taken down stream of
the orifice plate and the Differential pressure “hw” =
Ex. hw/pf2 = 141/250 = 0.564
 g Fg= 1/g
Fu=24 0.8 1.118
Time Delta T Pf2 hw 0
F
Pf2xhw d Fb Ftf Fpv Y2 Qg
12:00 0 250 141 90 187.75 2.5 1293.83 .9723 1.040 1.0039

Qgscf/d
1
Qgscf/d = hw x Pf2 x Fb x Ftf x Fpv x Y2 x Fu x Fg

Qgscf/d = 187.75 x 1293.83 x .9723 x 1.040 x 1.0039 x 24 x 1.118

Qgscf/d = 6,616,591 scf/d

or 6,617 mscf/d
or 6.62 mmscf/d
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Accuracy of Measurements

- During calculation some errors may be encountered.

- As a general rule, the more accurate measurements will give more accurate
results.
- However, in most cases, satisfactory results can be expected as long as the
errors remain constant.

The constant errors include the following:

1. Incorrect information a bout the orifice plate.
2. Contour of the orifice plate (convex or concave).
3. Thickness of the orifice edge.
4. Eccentricity of the orifice bore in relation to the pipe bore.
5. Incorrect information as to the pipe bore.
6. Excessive recess between the end of pipe and the face of orifice plate.
7. Excessive pipe roughness.
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Accuracy of Measurements

The variable errors include the following:

1) Flow disturbances caused by insufficient length of meter tube or irregularities

in the pipe, welding, etc;
2) Incorrect locations of differential taps in relation to the orifice plate;
3) Pulsating or turbulent flow;
4) Progressive buildup of solids, and sediment on the upstream side of the orifice
plate;
5) Accumulation of liquid in the bottom of a horizontal run;
6) Liquids in the piping or meter body;
7) Changes in operating conditions from those used in the coefficient calculations
(i.e., specific gravity, atmospheric pressure, temperature);
8) Incorrect zero adjustment of the meter;
9) Non uniform calibration characteristic of the meter;
10)Corrosion or deposits in the meter tube;
 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Accuracy of Measurements

12) Emulsification of liquids with mercury;

13) Incorrect arc for meter pens;

14) Formation of hydrates in meter piping or meter body;

15) Leakage around the orifice plate (applies to orifice fittings);

16) Wrong range on chart;

17) Incorrect time for rotation of chart;

18) Excessive friction between pen and chart; and

Pressure Safety Awareness
 Objectives
After completing this course you will be able to
explain:
• How pressure is used in our daily lives at home and
work
• Safe practices for line rigging and breaking
• Safe practices for pumping at the well site
• The importance of proper inspection and maintenance
• The applicable standards and guidelines
Inspection and Maintenance
Inspection and Maintenance

Welded
 Inspection and Maintenance

Washed out area

 1. Attach cross over to Kill Line
2. Mark Connect to indicate if
backing off
3. Rig up sufficient Chicksans
to account for movement.
2. 4. Attach actuator hoses (Purge
1. then attach ) Pressure up to open
actuator.
4. 5. Close Master Valves

3.
 Flow Head precautions.
• All Joints and connections on flow head are
marked so that any back off can be
observed.
• Remove all valve handles from Flow head
after opening or closing valves.
• Have check valve in Rig Kill line to avoid
back flow to Test Pump.
 Kill Open
Flow Line Open

Check valve
Open Open

Open Open
Master valve
Closed.
1.Set valves in position indicated
Pump Unit 2. Line up to downwind Boom.
3. Flush lines for 5 minutes till fluid appears
4. Shut back valves on choke.
5. Pump slowly till fluid comes out of swab
needle valve , then close needle valve.
 Pressure testing Fluid selection
• If Hydrates anticipated then use 50 :50 Mix
of water and glycol.
• On High Pressure Gas wells increase this
mix to 75% Glycol 25 % Water.
• Only if there is absolutely no possibility of
hydrates should water (preferably Brine) be
used .
 Test against Front valves of choke, Swab valve and
Master valve.
0 5

Kill Open
Flow Line Open

Check valve
0 5
Closed Open

Open
Master valve Closed
Closed.

Pump Unit
Trouble Shooting
&
Fluid Flow Problems
 Variation in Static and Differential Pressure on the
Barton!

Differential rising
a) Choke flow cutting (additional indication -
WHP dropping).
b) Liquid in LP Barton line.
c) Leak in LP Barton line or bellows housing.
d) Ambient or separator temperature increase.

Differential dropping
a) Choke plugging (additional indication - WHP
increasing).
b) Liquid puddle in front of orifice plate.
c) Liquid in HP Barton line.
d) Leak in HP Barton line or bellows housing.
e) Ambient or separator temperature decrease.
Static will not increase (causing a low pressure condition) -
a) Back pressure valve/controller malfunction (check valve movement)
b) Relief valve or burst disc is leaking (check for pipe coolness and/or burn at
relief outlet)
c) Restriction upstream of inlet at choke or valve
d) Valve on separator open such as a drain line.
 Fluid Flow Problems
• Emulsions
• Foamy Crude
• Paraffin
• Liquid Load-up
• Hydrates
• Sand
• CO2
• H2S
 Emulsions
Problem: Solutions:

• Two Liquids • Heat

Immisicible • Retention Time
• Agitation • Chemicals
• Emulsifying Agent • Heater-treaters
– Asphaltenes • Electricity
– Oil-wet solid
 Foamy Crude
Problem: Solutions:

• Liquid/Gas Foam • Heat

• Agitation • Retention Time
• Separation • Chemicals
– Gas out liquid lines • Agitation
– Liquid out gas lines • Cyclonic Inlets
• Knockout Vessel
 Foaming – How does that happen?

If the pressure is reduced on certain types of

crude oil, tiny spheres (bubbles) of gas are
encased in a thin film of oil when the gas comes
out of solution. This results in foam, or froth,
being dispersed in the oil and creates what is known as
‘foaming oil’. In other types of crude oil the viscosity
and surface tension of the oil may mechanically lock
Gas in the oil and cause an effect similar to foam.
Usually, oil foam will not be stable or long-lasting unless
foaming agent is present in the oil.
 What kind of conditions are likely to cause
foaming?
• API gravity is below 40
• Operating temperature is below 160oF
• Oil is viscous (above 50 centistrokes)
 What problems will foaming oil cause?

Foaming greatly reduces the capacity of oil and gas

separators since a much longer retention time up to 20
minutes is required to adequately separate and stabilize
a given quantity of oil. Foaming oil cannot be measured
accurately with positive-displacement meters or
conventional volumetric metering vessels. These
problems, combined with the loss of oil and gas due to
improper separation, emphasize the need for special
procedures in handling foaming oils.
 What methods assist in the breaking up of
foaming oil?

• Settling
• Agitation
• Heat
• Chemicals (eg defoamer)
 Paraffin
Solutions:
Problem:
• Heat
• Inhibitors
• Waxy Build-up
• Hot Oil Treatments
• Restricting/plugging
• Wireline Scrapping
Flow
• Teflon Coating
• Downhole or Surface
• Non-Organic Cloride (HCl)
• Bacteria
 Paraffin deposition?
Paraffin deposition in oil and gas separators
reduces their efficiency and may render them
inoperable by partially filling the vessel and/or
blocking the mist extractor and fluid passages.
Paraffin can be effectively removed from
separators by steaming or by use of solvents.
However, the best solution is to prevent initial
deposition in the vessel by heating or
chemically treating the fluid upstream of the separator.
 Liquid Load-up
Solutions:
Problem:
• Higher Rates
• Hydrostatic Kill – Unrestricted Flow
• Cleanups – Decreasing Schedule
• Rates/WHP Drop • Wireline Swabbing
• Coil Tubing N2 Jetting
• Stop-Cocking
 Hydrates
Solutions:
Problem:
• Heat
• Hydrocarbon/water cage – Formation
• – Surface
Restricting/plugging Flow
• Higher Rates
• Downhole or Surface
– Decreasing Schedule
• Pressure Drops
• Chemical Inhibitors
• Water Presence
– Methanol
• Turbulence – Glycol
• Gas Density • Dehydrators
Hydrating Conditions – How does this occur?

The formation of hydrocarbon ice crystals or

hydrates will occur at any point in a gas or liquid
hydrocarbon flow system, where the
temperature reaches the hydrate point for the
pressure condition and the nature of the fluid in
Water Cage
the system. Hydrates may occur at Hydrocarbon
temperatures as high as 120oF but the
normal danger zone is temperatures less than the
70's.
Hence, hydrating, or "freezing", as it is also
named, is not an unusual phenomenon, and
should always be expected as a possibility.
 Where would Hydrating Occur?
• Chokes
• Valves
• Orifices
• Sharp bends or restrictions in piping
How do we stop this?
• Increasing Temperature
• Reducing pressure while maintaining Temperature
• Injection of Methanol
• Injection of Glycol (for prevention not cure)
 Solids – What kinds of solids?
• Mud
• Formation Sand
• Frac Sand
• Fines
How will we identify if we have solids
coming back?
By conducting BS&W’s during flowbacks
If there is a distinct possibility that solids will come back
then erosion probes should be fitted.
Some kind of acoustic monitoring system.
 How would we prevent this?

Gravel packs with sand screens

Sand consolidation treatments
PerfStim perforating, instead of frac
If you cannot prevent this, how can we
control it?
Filters
SMS (Sand Management Systems)
Sand Separator??
 CO2
Problems: Solutions:

• Fluid Phase Changes • Keep in Gas State

• Heat Requirements • Choke at Heater
• Ignition Problems • Heaters in Series
• Corrosion • Backpressure DMV at Flare
• H2S • Sour Service Equipment
 H 2S
Problems: Solutions:

• Lethal • Training
• Flammable • PPE
• Heavier than Air • Sour Service Equipment
• Produces SO2 • Buddy System
• Contingency Plan
• Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Common Sense
• Corrosive
H2S Toxic
 H2S – Why should we be especially careful?

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, often called "sour gas,“

packs a double barreled punch.
First, there is its direct effect on humans. H2S
is a poisonous gas--it kills.
Second, there is the indirect threat to human
safety caused by H2S attack on metals,
especially steel, used in pressure control
equipment. H2S can literally destroy the
strength of steel, causing it to fracture while under
pressure with disastrous results.
 How do you determine H2S and CO2

The normal method is to use a

hand pump with ampoules
containing a solution on paper
which will measure the amount of
H2S/CO2 in % ppm (Parts Per
million). These ampoules differ for
each gas and also come in different
sizes of ppm.
 Troubleshooting
• Data Monitoring & Trending
– WHP for Choke and Rate Problems
– Differential for Choke and Rate Problems
– Controller Output for Instrumentation Problems
– GORs for Reservoir Fluid Conditions
– Pertinent System Parameters as Needed
– Audio & Visual Effects
 Other separator problems!
Abnormal Separation

Separator flooding: too much liquid flow volume for capacity of separator
as evidenced by significant liquid exiting the gas flare. Frequently occurs
during clean-up, especially when swabbing or coil tubing. Possible
solutions include allowing well to clean-up more before going through unit,
providing more or larger stages of separation, reducing rates, etc.
Carryover: entrained liquid mist droplets exiting with gas to the flare.
Gray smoke indicates water carryover, black smoke - oil, orange flame -
condensate. Possible reasons could be liquid levels too high, mist extractor
damage, or drain line leaking. Slight carryover is common due to the
downstream pressure drop and ensuing gas phase change.
Blowby: gas exiting with liquids. Possible causes include - low liquid
levels, gas vortexing at liquid outlet, level control failure and normal
solution gas breakout.
Gas-liquid mixtures can easily be detected (flare which smokes or makes a
deadened noise, whistling sound in the meters), but this is not the case with
liquid mixtures which can only be detected by examining samples. It is
strongly recommended that liquid BS&W samples be taken regularly.
 Irregularities in the Flow Rate!
Irregularities in the Flow Rate

This phenomenon is a great problem during well testing since it leads to

inaccuracies in the gas flow rate readings and significantly reduces the
separator's capacity. It should also be noted that samples taken from the
separator on a irregularly flowing well are incompatible from the point of
view of representativity.
Several reasons can be found for irregular flow rates:
a) Well slugging: the heading phenomenon which is characteristic of wells
with a high G.O.R. and oil wells with a bottomhole pressure lower than
bubble point pressure. In these conditions it is possible to increase the
separating pressure or even decrease the flow rate in order to reduce the size
of the phenomenon and stabilize flow.
b) Blockage in pipes due to hydrates: a heater must be installed or the
existing heater duplicated and/or a hydrate formation inhibitor (such as
methanol) must be injected by means of a chemical injection pump.
c) Regulation incorrectly set: a bad choice of proportional band may give
rise to the cycling phenomenon in the regulating valves, resulting in
pulsation of flow rates of the various fluids. This phenomenon may be
suppressed by the choosing a greater proportional band setting.