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A2 Level Biology Unit 4 Edexcel
A2 Level Biology Unit 4 Edexcel
m s il a u t u M -
m si t i s a r a p -
n oi t a d e r P -
g n i z a r G -
n oi ti t e p m o C -
: s r o t c a f c it o i B
t a ti b a h a ni s r o t c af c it
o i B
1 of 53
Abiotic Factors:
- Climate
- Oxygen availability
- Pollution
- Catastrophes
. e g n a h c t a ti b a h e ht ni s n oi ti d n o c e h t s s el n u e g n a h c t o n s e o d n e tf o si h t -
. y ti n u m m o c
g ni t s i x e e h t e c al p e r d n a n i w d n a t n e s e r p y d a e rl a s t n al p e h t h t i w e t e p m
o c y e ht -
- starts in newly formed habitats where there has not been a community before.
Pioneer phase:
: ) s h p o r t o t u a r o ( s e c u d o r P
m e t s y s o c e n a ni s el u c el o m ci n a g r o o t ni d e t a r o p r o c ni si y g r e n e h c i h w
ni e t a r e h T -
Secondary succession:
- pioneer species that start the new community usually have the adaptations of:
- rapid growth
Deflected succession:
Is a community that
remains stable because
human activity prevents it
from changing any further.
. d e t a c il p e r si e c n e u q e s
A N D e h t d e d d a e r a s e di t o e l c u n h c a t t a s e s a r e m yl o p A N D )
s e e r g e d 0 7 t a ( -
. e c n e u q e s d e t a e p e r R T S e h t f o t r a t s e h t t a h c a t t a s r e m i r p ) s e e r g e d 5 5 t a ( -
. d e d d a
e r a s e di t o e l c u n d n a s r e k r a m t n e c s e r o ul f h t i w s r e mi r p A N D , e s a r e m yl o p
A N D -
: 1 e l c y C
DNA profiling
Non coding blocks in DNA are called introns, and the coding regions are called
exons.
In introns DNA sequences are repeated many times, this is called short tandem
repeats (STR's).
- two bands occur when the two chromosomes have a different number of
repeats at a locus. ( a locus is a place where the same STR's occur.)
.t n u o c c a ot ni n e k at e b o t d e e n s r o t c af e s e h T
s g ni d n u o r r u s f o e r u t a r e p m et -
y t i di m u h -
t n e m e v o m ri a -
g ni ht o l c -
n o i t i s o p y d o b -
e z i s y d o b -
: s s e c o r p s i h t t c e ff a l l i w
t a ht s r o t c af y n a m e r a e r e ht , ht a e d r e tf a n o o s sl o o c y d o b e ht s a d e s u e b n a c e r ut a r e p m et y d
o B
ht a e d f o e m it e h t g n i g ni m r e t
e D
9 of 53
- double-stranded DNA is added to a restriction enzyme which cuts the DNA into fragments.
- fragments of double-stranded DNA are loaded into the wells of an agarose gel in a tank using
micropipette.
- the negatively charged DNA moves towards the positive electrode. The fragments separate into
the invisible bands.
- DNA is transferred to a nylon or nitrocellulose membrane by solution drawn up through the gel.
DNA double strands split and stick to the membrane.
- Membrane placed in a bag with DNA probe. Single-stranded DNA probe binds to fragments with
a complimentary sequence.
- if DNA is radioactive x-ray film is used to detect fragments, if fluorescent it is seen using UV
light.
. d e r u t a n e d e m o c e b s e m y z n e e ht s a s e e r g e d 8 3 - 1 2 si n oi t i s o p m o c e d r of t s e b e r u t a r e p m et -
. s et a lf e d y d o b e h t d n a d e s a el e r si s a g e ht s e u n it n o c n o i t i s o p m o c e d s a -
. n i k s e ht n o r a e p p a n a c s r e t s il b d i u q il r o s a g -
. k c al b - el p r u p o t n e h t n e e r g - h si d d e r ot s n e k r a d tI . y d o b e h t f o t s e r e ht s s o r c a s d a e r p s ti -
) ht a e d r e tf a s r u o h 2 7 - 6 3 ( . ni b o l g o m e a h pl u s
f o n o it a m r o f a o t e u d , n e m o d b a r e w ol e h t f o n i k s e ht f o n o it a r ol o c si d h si n e e r g a si n
g i s t s r i F -
) n o it a c a f e rt u p r o ( n
oi t i s o p m o c e D
11 of 5 3
Rigor mortis
After death the muscles relax then suddenly stiffen, this is known as rigor mortis. The steps at
which this occurs are:
- the pH of the cells fall, inhibiting enzymes and then inhibiting anaerobic respiration.
- the ATP needed for muscle contraction is not produced, bonds between muscle proteins
become fixed.
- the proteins can no longer move over one another to shorten the muscle.
A N D f o s e l c r i c l l a m s = s di m s al p -
A N D r al u c r i c n i a m -
n oi t a ri p s e r f o e t i s , e n a r b m e m e c a f r u s l l e c e h t f o g ni d l o f - ni =
e m o s o s e m -
t n e m e v o m l l e c r o f d e s u = m u l l e g al f -
n oi t c e t o r p r o f r e y al s u c u m a = el u s p a c -
s i s e h t n y s ni e t o r p f o e t i s = s e m o s o b i r -
e n a r b m e m e c a f r u s ll e c -
l l a w ll e c -
: m o r f e d a m si m u i r e t c a b A
. n o i s si f
y r a ni b y b y l l a u x e s a e c u d o r p y e h T . s g ni h t r e h t o g n o m a s u e l c
a i r e t c
u n a e v a h t o n o d y e h t s n a e m h ci h w ci t o y r a k o r p e r a ai r e t c a b
a B
1 3 of 53
Forensic entomology
- The rate of maggot development can be used as they accumulate on the body shortly after
death.
- usually blowflies will lay eggs within one day of finding the body.
Succession on corpses:
- this change makes it more attractive to other species of organism which changes the body for
the next group
r e f s n a r t d o ol b ot d o ol b t c
e ri d -
x e s d e t c et o r p n u -
s e l d e e n g ni r a h s -
: y b d et t i
m s n a r t e b n a c V I H
g n i z e e n s r o g ni h g u o c e l p o
e p y b d e s u a c si si ht -
s u c u m f o st e l p o r d ni r i a e h t h g u o r ht d e i r r a c si
-
: y b d e tt i m s n a r t e b n a c B T
B T d n a V I H f o n o i s si
m s n a r T
1 5 of 53
Viruses
Consist of:
- protein coat
: n o r e f r et n I
s e b o r c i m e h t y o r t s e d
n e h t h ci h w s e g a h p o r c a m d n a s e t y c o h p m yl e t a vi t c a t n e s e r p s n e g o h t a p y n a s e d o n h p m yl
e h t h g u o r h t s e s s a p h p m yl s a -
sl e s s e v h p m yl g n ol a s w ol f di ul f h p m yl e h t -
sl e s s e v ci t a h p m yl o t ni s ni a r d di ul f e u s si t -
: s e d o n h p m yl
. l a i r e t a m n gi e r o f e h t y o r t s e d t a h t s e m y z n e g n i s a e l e r el o u c a v h t i w e s u f s e m o s o s yl -
el o u c a v ni d e s o l c n e -
e g a h p o r c a m r o l i p o r t u e n y b d e f l u g n e -
e c a f r u s n o s n e gi t n a h t i w m ui r e t c a b -
: ai r e t c a b f o g ni f l u g n E
Lysozyme:
- an enzyme that breaks down the cell walls of bacteria, found in tears and saliva.
Inflammation:
- when a cut lets microbes enter the body the inflammatory response destroys
them.
- White blood cells release chemicals such as histamine which cause the arterioles to dilate increasing blood flow to the
site. Phagocytosis:
- neutrophils
specific immunity
d e u ni t n o c y ti n u m mi
B lymphocytes:
c i f i c e p s
- secrete antibodies in response to antigens
- B cell produces antibodies which which bind to bacteria with antigens on surface this labels
them as 'non self'
- lysosomes fuse with vacuole releasing enzymes which destroy the bacteria.
. n oi t c u r t s e d
of m e h t g n i y fi t n e di s n e gi t n a o t d n i b h ci
h w s e i d o bi t n a e t e r c e s s l l e c a m s al p -
s l l e c a m s al p o t ni e t ai t n e r e f fi d s l l e c r o t c e f f e B -
s l l e c r o t c ef f e B d n a s l l e c y r o m e m B e vi g o t s e d i vi d l l e c B e h t -
. l l e c B et al u mi t s t a h t ) s ni e t o r p ( s e n i k o t y c
s e c u d o r p d n a C
P A o t s d ni b r ot p e c e r y r at n e m i l p m o c h t i w l l e c r e pl e h T d e t a vi t c a -
r o t p e c e r y r at n e m i l p m o c h t i w l l e c B o t s d n i b n e gi t n a -
e c a f r u s n o s n e gi t n a h t i w m u i r e t c a b -
n oi t c el e s l a n o l
C
2 1 of 53
ht a e r b f o s s e n t r o h s -
) d o o l b p u h g u o c n e v e n a c ( g n i h g u o c -
: B T f o s m ot p m y S
s ll e c T r e l l i k y b k c a tt a d n a n oi t c u d o r p y d o b it n a s e c u d e r si ht
s ll e c T s s e r p p u s n a c a i r e t c a b B T -
s e g a h p o r c a m e ht e d i s ni e v i v r u s n a c a i r e t c a b B T -
B T f o n o i t c ef
nI
2 3 of 53
- the T killer cell divides to form two clones active T killer cells and memory T
killer cells. Cytokines from T helper cells stimulate the differentiation.
- T killer cell releases chemicals that cause pores to form in the infected cell
causing it to explode.
a i r e t c a b e h t y fi t n e di o t d e s u n e h t e r a s n i a t s -
t n e s e r p e r a a i r e t c a b t a h w e e s ot d e r u t l u c n e h t si ti -
n e k at si t n e it a p a y b p u d e h g u o c m ut u p s f o el p m a s a -
: ai r e t c a b f o n o it a c i fi t n e dI
t n e s e r p y d a e rl a s n e g it n a B T g n i w o h s n oi t a m m al f ni si ht e s u a c d o o l b e h t ni s ei d o b it n a -
a e r a d e m a lf ni s w o h s t l u s e r e v i t i s o p -
n i k s r e d n u d e t c ej ni si n il u c r e b ut f o t n u o m a ll a m s -
: s t s et d o ol b d n a n i k S
? d e s o n g a i d B T si w o
H
2 5 of 53
- as part of the inflammatory response fever causing substances are released from neutrophils
and macrophages
- these chemicals affect the hypothalamus and alter the set point for the core body temperature
to a higher temperature
e m o n e g n a m u h e ht o t ni d e t r e s ni e b n a c t a h t d n a r t s el b u o d a e k a m o t d e i p o c si A N D e h t -
A N R e h t f o y p o c A N D a s e k a m t i -
e s a t pi r c s n a r t e s r e v e r d e l l a c e m y z n e n a s e s u -
: s e t a c i l p e r s u r i v e h t w o H
o o t m e h t t c e f ni n a c s u r i v e h t o s s r o t p e c e r 4 D C e v a h o sl a s e g a h p o r c a m -
l l e c e h t s r e t n e n e h t A N R l a r i v e h t -
e n a r b m e m l l e c r e p l e h T e h t h t i w e s u f o t e p ol e v n e e h t g n i w o ll a r o t p e c e r d n o c e s a h t i w e ni b m o c n e h t y e h t
-
s l l e c r e pl e h T f o e c a f r u s e h t n o s r o t p e c e r 4 D C e h t o t d ni b 0 2 1
p g -
: m e t s y s e n u m mi e h t ni h t i w s l l e c r e pl e h I s e d a v ni V I H
d e ti d e n e t f o si A N R -
Transcription:
- hydrogen between the paired bases break and the DNA unwinds
- RNA nucleotides with complimentary bases to the ones on the template strand bond together forming mRNA
- mRNA then leaves the nucleus through a pore in the nuclear envelope
Translation:
-the anticodons on tRNA are complimentary to the mRNA codons for the
amino acid
- free amino acids attach to the correct tRNA molecule which carry it to
the ribosome
- the anticodons bind to the codons and form a chain of amino acids
which are held together with a peptide bond
s e s a e si d r e h t o o t el b a r e nl u v m e t s y s e n u m mi e h t
e v a el n a c d n a S D I A f o t e s n o e h t s e t a c i d ni s l l e c r e p l e h T f o r e b m u n w ol d n a n oi t al u c r i c ni s e s u r i v f o r e b m u n d e s a e r c ni e h t -
: e s a h p e s a e s i d e h T
et a vi t c a e r n a c s e s a e si d t n a m r o d -
r u c c o n a c s m o t p m y s e r o m d n a s n e k a e w m e t s y s e n u m mi -
: e s a h p ci n o r h c e h T
n oi t a c i l p e r s u r i v f o et a r e h t s e c u d e r yl t a e r g si h t -
m e h t y o r t s e d o t t r a t s h c i h w s l l e c r e l li k T y b d e si n g o c e r e r a s l l e c r e p l e h T d e t c e f ni s k e e w w e f a r e t f a -
s l l e c r e pl e h T f o s s ol d n a s u r i v e h t f o n oi t a c i l p e r di p a r a si e r e h t -
s m o t p m y s o n e v a h r o s m o t p m y s t e g r e h t i e ot s t r a t s n o s r e p d e t c e f ni e h t -
s k e e w 2 1 - 3 r e t f a d o ol b e h t ni r a e p p a s ei d o bi t n a V I H -
: e s a h p e t u c a e h t
- HIV binds to cell receptors virus envelope fuses with cell surface membrane
- transcription occurs
- virus particle budding becomes wrapped in cell membrane, forming the virus protein
s n e g o ht a p t s n i a g a e s n ef e d e ht ni l uf e s u
e r a h c i h w d i c a c i t c al e k il sl a ci m e h c et e r c e s y e h t s a s s e
c o r p e vi t s e g i d e ht ni d i a n a c a i r e t c a b e h t -
l a e di e r a s n oi ti d n o c e r e h w t u g e ht ni h t i w g n i v il m o r f t if e n e b a r ol f l a r ut a n -
s e n i t s e t ni e g r al d n a l l a m s e h t ni d n u o f e r a a i r e t c a b -
: a r o lf t u G
d o o f h t i w r e t n e t a h t a i r e t c a b t s o m s l l i k si ht 0. 2 n a h t s s el
f o H p a
g n i vi g d i c a c i r ol h c o r d y h ni at n o c l l i w s ll a w h c a m o t s e h t ni s d n al g ci r t s a g y b d e t e r c e s s e ci uj c i r t
s a g
: d i c a h c a m o t s
d e u n i t n o c s n e g o h t a p f o y rt n e g ni t n e v
: m e t s y s e v i t s e g i d e h t nI
e r P
3 3 of 53
The skin:
- the skins keratin (hard protein) outer layer stops entry of microorganisms
- entry can occur through wounds but blood clotting stops further enrty
- large numbers of microbes called skin flora live on the skin surface they prevent colonisation of
other bacteria
Mucous membranes:
- the mucus membranes line the airways and gut and provide easier routes into the body
- entry of microbes into the lungs is limited by the action of mucus and cilia
- the mucus traps microbes and the cilia carry the mucus to the throat where it is swallowed
- tears and saliva contain lysozyme which breaks down bacterial cell walls
. y ti n u m mi d r e h
d e ll a c si ti s n e p p a h si ht n e h W . d e t c e t o r p o sl a si s u r i v e h t t e g t o n d i d o
h w e n o y n a t a ht s n a e m si h T
. s r e h t o o t d e r r e f s n a rt e b ot yl e k il s s el si e s a e si d e ht d e si n u m mi e r a el p o e p h g u o n e n e h w
n e g o ht a p e h t f o t n e m g a rf g n i r a e b - n e gi t n a n a -
m r o f s s el m r a h a ot ni d e r e tl a n e e b s a h t a ht n i x o t a -
d e l l i k n e e b s a h t a h t ai r e t c a b ni at n o c y a m s e n i c c a v = a i r e t c a b d e l l i K -
s s el m r a h e r a y e ht o s d e n e k a e w n e e b e v a h s e s u r i v e s e ht = s e s u r i v d et a u n e t t A -
: g n i w o l l o f e h t ni at n o c y a m s e n i c c a V
d e t a n i c c a v g ni
e B
3 5 of 53
Becoming immune
-active artificial immunity = being vaccinated against specific diseases, this vaccine stimulates
specific immune responses which give her immunity to the disease
- passive artificial immunity = when a patient who is in danger of getting a disease is given
specific antibodies to stop them from getting a particular disease
- active natural immunity = when a person has had a disease in the past and has made specific B
memory and T memory cells to help combat the disease if the person gets it again
- passive natural immunity = when a baby has just been born its immune system is undeveloped,
but its mother has given it antibodies via the placenta
l l e c l ai r e t c a b e ht ni d n u of s e m y z n e ci f i c e p s f o n o i ti b i h ni -
d e c u d o r p t o n e r a s ni et o r p l ai t n e s s e t a ht g n i n a e m s i s e
h t n y s ni et o r p f o n o i t i b i h ni -
y t i l i b a e m r e p ni s e g n a h c g n i s u a c e n a r b m e m ll e c e ht f o n oi t p u r si d -
) l l e c e ht f o g ni t s r u b o t d a el n a c si h t ( s i s e ht n y s ll a w ll e c l a i r e t c a b f o n o i t i b i h ni -
s n e g o h t a p e ht y o r t s e d n e h t n a c m e t s y s
e n u m mi n w o s t s o h e ht , a i r e t c a b f o n o it a c il p i t l u m e ht t n e v e r p t a ht
s c it o i bi t n a = c it a t s o i r e t c a b -
ai r e t c a b y o r t s e d t a ht s c it oi b it n a = l a d i c i r e t c a b -
k r
: s ci t oi o w s c it oi
b it n a f o s e p yt
o wt e r a e r e h T
b it n a w o H
3 7 of 53
Treating AIDS:
There are two types of drugs that reduce the the production of more viruses.
- reverse transcriptase inhibitors = prevent the viral RNA from making DNA for integration into the
hosts genome
- protease inhibitors = inhibit the proteases that catalyse the cutting of larger proteins into small
polypeptides for use in the construction of more viruses
Treating TB:
- this goes on for 6 months until all dormant bacteria are destroyed
t n a t s i s e r w o n e r a a i r e t c a b ht o b -
l l e c l ai r e t c a b
t n a t s i s e r - n o n a s d ni f e c n a t s i s e r c it o i bi t n a r of e n e g a g n i y r r a c ll e c di m s al p l
ai r e t c a b t n a t s i s e r a -
. d e y o r t s e d e r a y e ht e r of e b ci t oi b it n a e ht o t t p a d a d n a
et at u m o t t h gi f l l i w a i r e t c a b e ht t n e s e r p ai r e t c a b h t i w t s o h e ht ot ni d e t c ej ni si ci t oi b it n a n a fi
o S -
. e v i v r u s o t r e d r o ni t ni a r t s n o c e h t ot t p a d a o t m e t s y s e ht
n i h t i w s e i c e p s ll a n o e r u s s e r p t u p l l i w ti m e t s y s o c e n a n o t u p si
d n i k y n a f o t n i a r t s n o c a n e h W -
- bacterial population sizes are usually in billions, so the number os cells containing mutations is
vast
- some of these random mutations can be beneficial to the bacteria. Such mutations can make
the bacteria:
n oi t a ri p s e r g n i r u d n e g y x o
h t i w s t c a e r e t a r d y h o b r a c e h t ni d e r o t s n e g o r d y h e h t n e h w y g r e n e f o s
t n u o m a e g r al e s a el e r o t l ai t n e t o p e h t s a h l e uf e h T -
: e s o c u l g e h t g n i s U
e s o c ul g l e u f et a r d y h o b r a c e h t m r of o t d e c u d e r n e h t si e d i x oi d n o b r a c -
n e g o r d y h e r o t s ot r e d r o ni e d i x oi d n o b r a c h t i w s t c a e r n e g o r d y h e h t -
: r e t a w m o r f n e g o r d y h g n i r o t S
r e t a w t il p s o t t h g il m o rf y g r e n e s e s u s i s e h t n y s o t o h p -
y g r e n e s e ri u q e r n e g y x o d n a n e g o r d y h o t ni r e t a w f o g n it t i l p s e h t -
s i s e ht n y s o t o
h P
4 1 of 53
Infection control:
- patients should complete their treatment even when they feel better so that all bacteria is
destroyed
O 2 H d n a 2 O C ot el b a e m r e p si h ci h w - e n a r b m e m r e t u o h
t o o m S
s el u c e l o m r e t s o p s n a r t s ni at n o c h ci h w - e n a r b m e m r e n ni ht o o m S
r e ht o n a e n o ot d e ni oj s di o k a l y ht f o k c a t s a - m u n a r G
. s i s yl ot o h p r of s e m y z n e s n i a t n o c s c a s e n a r b m e m d i o k a l y h t e h t ni h t i w di u lf - e c a p s di o k a l y h T
s n o i t c a e r t n e d n e p e d n i -t h g il e h t t u o
y r r a c o t d e d e e n s e m y z n e e h t ll a s ni at n o c . s e n a r b m e m di o k a l y ht e ht g ni d n u o r r u s di ul f e h t - a m
o r t S
s ni et o r p ri e h t f o e m o s r o f s e n e g ni a t n o c s t s al p o r ol h c - p o ol A N D
. s n oi t c a e r t n e d n e p e d -t h g il e h t ni d e vl o v ni e r a d n a s e n a r b m e m e ht ni d e d d e b m e
d n a s ni et o r P . s c a s d e l l i f - di u lf d e n e tt a lf d e t c e n n o c r e t ni f o m e t s y s a -
t s al p o r ol e n a r b m e m di o k a l y h T
h c a f o e r u t c u r t S
4 3 of 53
Light-dependent reactions =
- use energy from light and hydrogen from photolysis of water to produce reduced NADP, ATP
and the waste product oxygen
- the oxygen is then either used directly in respiration or released into the atmosphere
Light-independent reactions =
- use the reduced NADP and ATP from the light-dependent reaction to reduce carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates
The co-enzyme NADP is reduced when electrons are added during photosynthesis.
. s d i c a o ni m a s a h c u s s d n u o p m o c ci n a g r o r e ht o ot ni d e t r e v n o c e b n e ht n a c e s o x e h -
. e s o x e h d e ll a c r a g u s n o b r a c - 6 a f o n oi t a e r c e ht ni d e vl o v ni e r a d e m r of s ' P L A G 2 1 y r e v e f o t u o
o w T -
. n o i t c a e r e ht r o f y g r e n e e ht s e d i v o r p s n o i t c a e r t n e d n e p e d -t h g il e h t m o r f P T A . s n oi t c a e r
t n e d n e p e d - t h g il e ht m o rf P D A N d e c u d e r e ht m o r f s e m o c n o i t c u d e r e ht r o f
n e g o r d y h e h T -
. P L A G d e ll a c et a h p s o h p r a g u s n o b r a c - 3 a m r of ot d e c u d e r si d n u o p m o c n o b r a c - 3 si ht -
. P G , s e l u c el o
m
n o b r a c - 3 o wt ot ni n w o d s k a e r b y lt ai d e m mi d n a el b a t s n u si d e m r of
d n u o p m o c n o b r a c - 6 e h T -
.
O C S I B u
) a m o r t s ( s n o i t c a e r t n e d n e p e d n i -
e m y z n e e ht y b d e s yl at a c si n o i t c a e r si h T . P B u R d
R
t h g i L
e ll a c d n u o p m o c n o b r a c - 5 a h t i w s e ni b m o c 2 O C -
- energy from the light raises two electrons to a higher energy level
- the electrons leave the chlorophyll and pass along electron carriers
- the electrons pass from one carrier to the next in a series of oxidation and reduction reactions
losing its energy in the process
- within the thylakoid space an enzyme catalyses splitting of water to give oxygen gas, hydrogen
ions and electrons
- these electrons replace the ones lost in the chlorophyll molecule and the hydrogen ion
concentration is raised as a result of photolysis
- the electrons that have passed along the electron transport chain combine with NADP and
hydrogen ions from the water to form reduced NADP
. s i s e h t n y s o t o h p f o e t a r e h t e c n e ul f ni o sl a l l i w s r o t c a f g ni t i mi L
t n e m n o r i v n e
e h t ot d e r r e f s n a r t si d n a y g r e n e e k a m o t s s e c o r p e h t g ni r u d t s ol si
e m o s -
s e v a el
m o r f r e t a w g ni t a r o p a v e ni d e s u t u b l l y h p o r o l h c y b d e b r
o s b a t o n y g r e n e f o % 0 5 -
d e t c el f e r % 5 -
: f a el t n a l p a s ti h ti n e h w t h
ht h g u o r ht y g r e n e f o r e f s n a rt e ht
g il e h t o t s n e p p a h t a h W si t n e i
c if f e w o H
4 7 of 53
Hetrotrophs cannot make their own food instead they must consume it. Types of consumers are:
- tertiary consumers (carnivores) eat other consumers. the carnivores at the top of the food chain
are sometimes called top carnivores.
- animals that eat plants and other animals are known as omnivores
- detrivores are primary consumers that feed on dead organic matter (detritus)
- decomposers are species of bacteria that feed on the dead remains of animals
Food chain:
is the way energy is transferred in a ecosystem. The position a species occupies in a food chain
is called its trophic level.
r e m m u s ni sl e s s e v w o r r a n d n a g n i r p s ni d e c u d o r p e r a sl e s s e v e d i w -
sl e s s e v m e l y x f o r e y al w e n a s e c u d o r p e e r t a r a e y y r e v e -
: y g ol o n o r h c o r d n e D
t s e b s e h s i r u o lf ti h ci
h w ni s n o i t i d n o c r a l u c i t r a p s a h t n a l p f o s e i c e p s h c a e -
t a e p e ht r e dl o e h t r e y al e h t r e p e e d e h t : s r e y al ni s m r of t a e p -
n e l l o p f o e p yt e u q i n u a s a h t n a l p f o s e i c e p
s h c a e -
y a c e d o t t n a t s i s e r y r e v si t a h t r e y al r e t u o h g u ot a e v a h s n i a r g n e l l o p -
st n u o m a t s a v ni n e ll o p e c u d o r p s t n al p -
Energy in a ecosystem
The rate at which energy is transferred into the organic molecules that make up the new plant
biomass.
Respiration (R):
plant
respiration
NPP = GPP - R
e c u d o r p e r t o n n a c t u b e g a e vi t c u d o r p e r o t e v i v r u s s di r b y h - y t i l i r e t s d i r
b y h
d e e r b o t h g u o n e g n
ol
e v i v r u s t o n o d y e ht t u b s e c u d o r p e r a s di r b y h s e i c e p s e m o s ni - y t i li b a i v ni
d i r b y h
s e mi t
t n e r e f fi d t a e c u d o r p e r t u b a e r a e m a s e h t ni t s i x e s e i c e p s e h t - n oi t a l
g n i d e e r b r et ni s e i c e p s g n it n o si l a r o p m e t
e v e r p - n oi t d y p
t a ti b a h e ht f o s t r a p t n e r ef f i a l u c c o s e i
o sI c e p s e h t - n oi t a l o si l a ci g o l o c e
5 1 of 53
- some infrared emitted by the earth's surface escapes and cools down the earth
- infrared radiation is emitted by the plants and soil, some infrared radiation is
absorbed by the glass
. 2 O C s e s a e l e r h c i h w e n o t s e m il s e d o r e ni a r d i c A
. sl e v el 2 O C e h t e s a e r c ni dl u o c ni a r d i c a d n a y t i vi t c a ci n a cl o v ni
e s a e r c ni n a o s