CANCER

Tumor
 A tumor is a commonly used, but non-specific,
term for a neoplasm. The word tumor simply
refers to a mass.

 This is a general term that can refer to benign

(generally harmless) or malignant (cancerous)
growths.
 What is Cancer?
 Division – uncontrolled cell division

 Growth – formation of a lump (tumour) or large

numbers of abnormal white cells in the blood

 Mutation – changes to how the cell is viewed by the

immune system

 Spread – ability to move within the body and survive

in another part
Division – uncontrolled cell division
 Oncogenes

 Tumour suppressor genes – p53

 Suicide genes – apoptosis

 DNA repair genes

 Neoplasm= Tumor

 Malignant Neoplasm = Cancer

 Benign Tumor
 It is not cancerous. It is similar to cancer because the growth is
a result of abnormal cells. However, unlike cancer, it is unable
to spread to other areas of the body (such as the brain or lungs)
and it does not affect nearby tissue. It is a contained mass that
stays where it grows.

 On its own, a benign tumor is not dangerous. However, the

location of the tumor is what poses the threat. If the mass puts
pressure on a primary nerve, a main artery, or compresses
brain matter, even a benign tumor can cause serious problems.

 Some suspected causes of benign tumors include a traumatic

injury at the tumor location, chronic inflammation (or long-
term stress that leads to inflammation), an undetected
infection, or diet.
 Malignant Tumor
 Malignant tumor, that means the mass is cancerous. The
word malignant is Latin for “badly born.” This type of tumor has
the ability to multiply uncontrollably, to metastasize (spread) to
various parts of the body and invade surrounding tissue.

 Malignant tumors are formed from abnormal cells that are highly
unstable and travel via the blood stream, circulatory system and
lymphatic system.

 There are many suspected causes of cancer – some are widely

accepted by the medical community while others are not. Obesity,
smoking, alcohol consumption, poor diet, environmental
pollution, heavy metal exposure and household toxins are a few
culprits that may lead to cancer in your body.
Apoptosis vs. Necrosis
 Whereas apoptosis is a form of cell death that
is generally triggered by normal, healthy
processes in the body, necrosis is cell death
that is triggered by external factors or disease,
such as trauma or infection.
 Apoptosis, which can also occur as a defense
mechanism during healing processes, is almost
always normal and beneficial to an organism,
while necrosis is always abnormal and
harmful.
 necrosis is considered an "unprogrammed"
(unnatural) cell death process at this time.

 As a usually healthy form of a cell's life cycle,

apoptosis rarely demands any form of medical
treatment, but untreated necrosis can lead to
serious injury or even death.
Difference Between Mutagen and Carcinogen
 Mutagen and carcinogen are two terms that
have a lot in common.

 There is a potential that a single substance

could be both of them at the same time and be
only one of the two, as well.
 Mutagen is anything which has the potential of
generating a mutation.

 The mutation, which is discussed here, is the

genetic mutation; mutation is DNA code.

 Mutations are not always a bad thing. Species

evolving better is a result of mutations
occurring through various generations.
 A mutagen could be of physical or chemical origin.

 Physical mutagens are x-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, UV

rays, and radioactive decay.

 Among chemical mutagens reactive oxygen species, nitrous

acid, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, alkylating agents, aromatic
amines, sodium azide, and benzene are some popular
substances.

 Heavy metals such as Arsenic, Chromium, Cadmium and Nickel

also have the ability to induce mutations.

 Biological agents such as some viruses, transposons, and

bacteria may also change genetic material, which may lead to
mutations.
 Carcinogen is anything which has the potential
of generating cancer.

 Cancer is a phenomenon which occurs as a

result of mutated cell cycle processes.
 Carcinogens are divided into two types; radioactive
carcinogens and non-radioactive carcinogens.

 Radioactive carcinogens are gamma rays and alpha

particles, and non-radioactive carcinogens are
asbestos, dioxins, Arsenic compounds, Cadmium
compounds, PVC, diesel exhaust, benzene, tobacco
smoke etc.
 Telomeres and
Telomerase in Cancer
 What are telomeres?
 Telomeres are…
 Repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of all
human chromosomes
 They contain thousands of repeats of the six-
nucleotide sequence, TTAGGG
 In humans there are 46 chromosomes and thus 92
telomeres (one at each end)
 What do telomeres do?
 They protect the chromosomes.
 They separate one chromosome from another
in the DNA sequence
 Without telomeres, the ends of the
chromosomes would be "repaired", leading to
chromosome fusion and massive genomic
instability.
 Telomeres are also thought to be the "clock"
that regulates how many times an individual
cell can divide. Telomeric sequences shorten
each time the DNA replicates.
 Telomeres in embryonic cells, germ cells, and
cells that require extended regenerations are
long.

 All other cells have short telomeres.

 With each cell division telomeres become

shorter, until after dozens of divisions
telomeres get lost and the cell eventually dies.
How Does Telomerase Work?
 Telomerase works by adding back
telomeric DNA to the ends of
chromosomes, thus compensating for the
loss of telomeres that normally occurs as
cells divide.

 Most normal cells do not have this enzyme

and thus they lose telomeres with each
division.
 Telomerase and Cancer
 There is experimental evidence from hundreds
of independent laboratories that telomerase
activity is present in almost all human tumors
Oncogenes
Proto-oncogenes are genes that normally help cells
grow.

When a proto-oncogene mutates (changes) or there are

too many copies of it, it becomes a "bad" gene that can
become permanently turned on or activated when it is
not supposed to be.

When this happens, the cell grows out of control,

which can lead to cancer. This bad gene is called an
oncogene.
 p53
 The p53 gene like the Rb gene, is a tumor suppressor
gene, i.e., its activity stops the formation of tumors.

 If a person inherits only one functional copy of the

p53 gene from their parents, they are predisposed to
cancer and usually develop several independent
tumors in a variety of tissues in early adulthood. This
condition is rare, and is known as Li-Fraumeni
syndrome.

 However, mutations in p53 are found in most tumor

types, and so contribute to the complex network of
molecular events leading to tumor formation.
 The name is due to its molecular mass: it is in the 53
kilodalton fraction of cell proteins.

  The human p53 gene is located on the 17th

chromosome (17p13.1).
 p53 plays an important role in cell cycle control and
apoptosis. 

 Defective/mutant p53 could allow abnormal cells to

proliferate, resulting in cancer.  As many as 50% of
all human tumors contain p53 mutants.
 Normal functions of p53
 Repair of damaged DNA before S phase in the cycle
by arresting the cell cycle in G1 until the damage is
repaired

 Apoptosis cell death if there is extensive DNA

damage