CHAPTER 1

MOLECULES OF LIFE
5 MAJOR CLASSES OF MOLECULES THAT MAKE UP THE
1.1:
BODIES WaterORGANISM
OF LIVING

1.2: Carbohydrate
1.3: Lipid
1.4: Protein
15:DNA and RNA molecule

1
 Learning Outcomes:
1.1 Water
a) llustrate the structure of water molecules..
b) State the properties of water

2
 Learning Outcomes:
1.2 Carbohydrate
a)    State the classes of carbohydrates such as
monosaccharide, disaccharides and
polysaccharides
b)    Identify the structures α-glucose, β-glucose
(monosaccharide), maltose (disaccharides) and
cellulose (polysaccharides).
c)    Describe condensation and hydrolysis.
d) llustrate the formation and breakdown of maltose.

3
 Learning Outcomes:

1.3 Lipids

a) State the types of lipid : triglycerides (fats &

oils), phospholipids and steroid
b) Describe the structure of fatty acids and
glycerols.
c) llustrate the formation and breakdown of
triglycerides.

4
 Learning Outcomes:

1.4 Proteins
a)   Describe the basic structure of amino acids
b)   State how amino acids are grouped.
c)   State the functions of proteins.

5
 Learning Outcomes
1.5 DNA and RNA Molecule

a) State the structures of nucleotide as the

basic composition of nucleic acids
(deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and ribonucleic
acid, RNA)

b) Differentiate between RNA and DNA

nucleotide

c) Describe the structure of DNA based on

the Watson and Crick Model
6
1.1WATER

7
Introduction
• Most abundant compound in cells.
• 60 - 90% of the total chemical content of the
cell.
• 70% of the human body weight
• A colorless, odorless and tasteless fluid
• Neutral with a pH of 7.0.

8
 Structure of a water (H2O)
molecule
• Contains two hydrogen atoms joined to one
oxygen atom by single covalent bond.

O H H
O
H

9
 Structure of a water (H2O)
molecule
The angle between the 2 hydrogen atoms is
104.5°

The 3 atoms form a wide V-shape.

10
 Structure of a water (H2O)
molecule
• 2 hydrogen atoms share electrons with one
oxygen atom

Covalent
bonds
1

11
 Properties of water
influences by its
characteristic:

i. Water is a polar molecule

ii. Is able to form hydrogen bonds

12
 Polarity of water
• Water is a polar
molecule due to the
unequal distribution of
shared electrons
 Oxygen is more electronegative
than hydrogen
 Electrons are more attracted to
oxygen than to hydrogen
 The region near the oxygen
atom has a partial negative
charge (∂-) and the region near
the hydrogen atom has a partial
positive charge (∂+) .

• The covalent bond in water is

a polar covalent bond .
13
 Polarity of water
• because its polarity, H2O are
attracted to each other & also
attracted to charged
particles /charged surfaces

14
 Ability to form hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bond is formed when a
hydrogen atom is attracted to
another strongly electronegative
atom ( e.g. F, O & N )

In water, a partial positive

hydrogen atom(δ + ) of one H2O
molecule is attracted to the
partial negative oxygen atom(δ - )
of nearby H2O molecule Areas with opposite
charges are attracted

15
 Ability to form hydrogen bonds
So, each H2O molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up
to maximum 4 other water molecules

∂ -
∂ -

O O

H H ∂+ ∂+ H H
∂+ ∂+
∂ -
∂ -

O
∂+
H∂
+
H
∂ - ∂ -

O O
∂+ ∂+
H ∂+ H ∂+ H H
16
 Ability to form hydrogen bonds
• Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent bonds but
they are strong enough to hold H2O molecules together

17
 Ability to form hydrogen bonds
• Therefore, water exhibit cohesion and adhesion

• cohesion : the linking

together of water
molecules by hydrogen
bonds

• adhesion : the clinging of

water molecule to other
substances

18
Properties Of Water And Its Importance
1. Act as universal solvent
2. Low viscosity
3. High specific heat capacity
4. High Latent heat of vaporization
5. High surface tension
6. Exhibit capillarity
7. Maximum density at 4oC

19
CARBOHYDRATES

20
 3 main classes

E.g : Glucose
Fructose E.g : Starch
E.g : Maltose Glycogen
Galactose
Sucrose Cellulose
Lactose
21
 Monosaccharides

• General formula: ( CH2O )n

n = number of C atoms in the molecule; n = 3, 4,
5, 6, 7
E.g.: glucose - C6H12O6
• most names for sugars end with –ose
• The molecule has carbonyl group (C=O) and multiple
hydroxyl groups (-OH).

22
 Monosaccharides
Classified based on:

1.Location of 2. No. of Carbon atoms in

carbonyl group their molecule

Aldose sugar
Triose Pentose
3C 5C
Contains the carbonyl (-C=O)
group aldehyde located at C1 @
at the end C skeleton Hexose
6C
Ketose sugar

Contains the carbonyl (-C=O)

group ketone located at C2 @
within C skeleton 23
 Monosaccarides
1) Based on the location of carbonyl group :
• Common organic functional groups:

24
MONOSACCARIDES : Location of carbonyl group

25
 Monosaccarides
2) Based on the number of carbon atoms present :

26
MONOSACCARIDES : Number of carbon atoms

C3H6O3 C5H10O5 C6H12O6

C3H6O3 C5H10O5 C6H12O6 27

 Monosaccarides

(OH group at C1 located

below the plane of the
ring)

C6H12O6

Molecular formula :
(CH2O)6 or C6H12O6 (OH group at C1 located above
the plane of the ring) 28
 Disaccharides
Consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic
linkage

29
 Disaccharides
- Example: maltose, sucrose & lactose

Maltose (malt sugar) = α-glucose + α-glucose

Sucrose (cane sugar) α-glucose + fructose

=
~ main form of sugar transported in plants

Lactose (milk sugar) = β-glucose + galactose

30
Disaccharides: Formation of Maltose

α-1, 4 glycosidic bond

Condensation
+ + H2O

Hg

α-Glucose + α-Glucose Maltose + H2O

Maltose is made by a condensation reaction

between 2 glucose molecules
31
Disaccharides: Formation of Maltose

α-1, 4 glycosidic bond

Condensation
+ + H2 O

j
α-Glucose + α-Glucose Maltose + H2O

A water molecule is lost from the –OH groups between C1 of one

monosaccharide and C4 of another monosaccharide

32
Disaccharides: Formation of Maltose

α-1, 4 glycosidic bond

Condensation
+ + H2 O

α-Glucose + α-Glucose Maltose + H2O

A covalent bond forms so that the remaining oxygen atom links an

C4. The C-O-C linkage is called glycosidic bond

33
Disaccharides: Breakdown of Maltose

α-1, 4 glycosidic bond

Hydrolysis

+ H2 O

Maltose + H2O

Maltose breaks into 2 monosaccharide molecules when the

reaction happens in reverse with the aid of an enzyme
This process is called hydrolysis

34
Polysaccharides

35
Used as energy storage
in
animals

Structural material of
plant cell wall
36
 Polysaccharides: CELLULOSE
• consists of β- glucose monomers linked (upside
down to each other)
by β- 1,4 glycosidic bonds

37
 Polysaccharides: CELLULOSE
• Forms a long chain (unbranched chains)
• many hydrogen bonds are formed between the
hydroxyl groups on adjacent chains parallel to
one another

38
 Polysaccharides: CELLULOSE
• many parallel cellulose chains are held together
forming microfibrils (strong building cables)

• making the cell wall a very stable structure

(strong & rigid )

39
Polysaccharides

40
41
42
1.3 Lipids

43
 LIPIDS

Does not include true polymers

Are hydrophobic substances - insoluble in water

44
 Triglycerides
e.g.: Fats & Oils
3
MAJO
R Phospholipids
TYPES
OF
LIPIDS

Steroids
e.g.: Cholesterol
& Testosterone 45
 Lipids: TRIGLYCERIDES
Comprises of fats (solid at room temperature) & oils
(liquid at room temperature)
Also known as triacylglycerol
Composed of 3 fatty acids molecules & 1 glycerol
molecule joined by ester linkage/bond

46
Lipids: TRIGLYCERIDES

47
 STRUCTURE OF FATTY ACID
AND GLYCEROL

3 Fatty Acid 1 Glycerol

- A molecule containing a long chain An alcohol
of hydrogen & carbon atom containing 3
(hydrocarbon chain) carbon atom
- with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at
one end.

carboxyl hydrocarbon chain

group Glycerol 48
 TRIGLYCERIDES: FATTY ACID

1 Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride Water

Side chain of fatty acids are represented by R

49
Fatty Acid
Based on structure of hydrocarbon chain

Unsaturated fatty acid Saturated fatty acid

 Contain one or more double  No double bond in the
bond between carbon atoms hydrocarbon chain.
in the hydrocarbon chain
 A polyunsaturated fatty acid

contain two or more double

bond.

Carboxyl Hydrocarbon
group chain
s
50
TRIGLYCERIDES: FATTY ACID
Saturated Fat & Unsaturated Fat

51
TRIGLYCERIDES: FATTY ACID
Saturated Fat & Unsaturated Fat

52
 TRIGLYCERIDES: FATTY ACID
Aspect Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat
State of matter Solid in room Liquid in room
temperature temperature
Fatty acid No double bond Contain one or more
double bond
Source Most animal fat Most plant fat (oil)
Example Butter Olive oil, all vegetable oil

53
53
TRIGLYCERIDES: FATTY ACID

Saturated Fat

Unsaturated Fat

54
 TRIGLYCERIDES: GLYCEROL
 A type of alcohol
 glycerol contains 3C & 3 hydroxyl (OH-) groups

Glycerol
55
 Formation Of Triglycerides/Fat
• Made of 3 fatty acids molecules joined to one
glycerol molecule by ester linkage/bond
• 1 Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids  Triglyceride

1 Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride Water

56
 Formation Of Triglycerides/Fat
• Formation of triglycerides is called esterification
/condensation
• Breakdown of triglycerides is called hydrolysis

1 Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride + Water

57
 3 Types of Lipid

1.Triglycerides 2. Phospholipids 3. Steroid

Oil Fat

58
1.4 Protein

59
 Protein

Comprises of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen /

(C, H, O & N) and also sulphur & phosphorus

Are polymers formed from the condensation of many monomers

of amino acids
The amino acids in proteins are joined by peptide
bonds
Polymer of amino acids called polypeptides

60
BASIC STRUCTURE & CLASSES
OF AMINO ACIDS
There are 20 different amino acids
All amino acids have the same basic structure
with 4 components
but their side chain ( R group )
Hydrogen atom
differs

61
 based on the R group / side chain
NON-POLAR POLAR ACIDIC BASIC
Has hydrophobic, Has hydrophilic, Negatively charged Positively charged
non-polar side polar side chain side chain side chain
chain

Glycine (Gly)
Serine (Ser)
Aspartic acid (Asp)

Lysine (Lys)

62
 CLASSES OF AMINO ACID

Polar amino acids have polar side chains

(making them hydrophilic)
63
 CLASSES OF AMINO ACID

Non-polar amino acids have hydrophobic non-polar side

chains
64
CLASSES OF AMINO ACID

Acidic amino acids have –ve charged side chains

Basic amino acids have +ve charged side chains
65
CLASSES OF AMINO ACID

(Weakly polar)

66
 POLYPEPTIDE

• the repeated sequence (-N-C-C-N-C-C) is the

polypeptide’s backbone
67
 LEVELS OF PROTEIN
STRUCTURE

Single polypeptide chain More than 2

polypeptide chain
68
 LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Level of structure Type of bonds

Primary Covalent peptide bonds only between amino

acids
Secondary Hydrogen bonds between amino acids in the
peptide bond regions/polypeptide backbone
the peptide chain
Tertiary Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulphide
bonds, hydrophobic & Van der Waals
interactions between R groups in a
polypeptide chain
Quaternary Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulphide
bonds, hydrophobic & Van der Waals
interactions between polypeptide chains
69
 Examples of protein
Protein Function
As Membrane/Channel proteins Transport proteins

As Immunoglobulin (antibodies) Defensive proteins

As hormones , e.g :Insulin Hormonal proteins

As enzymes ,e.g : Amylase Enzymatic proteins
Actin; myosin Contractile & motor
proteins
Collagen; keratin Structural proteins

70
1.5 DNA and RNA
Molecule
 Structure of
nucleotide

Structure of
Differences of DNA
DNA & RNA

NUCLEIC ACIDS

mRNA, Types & function

rRNA, Of RNA
tRNA
 CHAPTER 1: MOLECULES 0F LIFE

Nucleic Acids
2 types of Nucleic acids found in cell

DNA RNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) (Ribonucleic acid)

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 73
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as
polymers called nucleotides
- So,
- Monomer/basic unit : nucleotide
- Polymer : polynucleotide

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 74
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLECULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: NUCLEOTIDE

• Each nucleotide composed of 3
components:
1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar
3. Nitrogenous base / Organic base

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 75
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Component of NUCLEOTIDE
1. Phosphate group
In each nucleotide, phosphate group is joined to the
5th carbon of pentose sugar

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 76
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Component of NUCLEOTIDE
2. Pentose sugar
Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)
C5H10O4 C5H10O5

A hydrogen atom attached to its A hydroxyl group attached to its

2nd carbon atom 2nd carbon atom
1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 77
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Component of NUCLEOTIDE
3. Nitrogenous base / organic base
nitrogenous base is joined to the 1st carbon of pentose

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 78
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Component of NUCLEOTIDE
3. Nitrogenous base / organic base
2 Types
6-membered ring fused to a 5-
6-membered ring
membered ring
(Single ring)
(Double ring)

pyrimidine purine

Cytosine Thymine Uracil Adenine Guanine

(in DNA) (in
RNA)
1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 79
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Component of NUCLEOTIDE
Two Types of
NITROGENOUS BASES

1.5a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic component of nucleic acid 80
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (DNA & RNA).
 Basic Structure of Nucleotide
Organic / nitrogenous
bases
5’

3’

• all components of nucleotide are

Pentose sugars joined together by condensation
reaction 81
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids
2 types of Nucleic acids

DNA RNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) (Ribonucleic acid)

1.5b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson and Crick 82
LEARNING OUTCOMES: Model
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA

• Based on the Watson and Crick Model

• Watson and Crick proposed the double
helix model in 1953

• One DNA molecule consists of 2 helical strands of

polynucleotide
• Pentose sugar: deoxyribose
• The nucleotides in each strand are
joined by phosphodiester bonds
1.5b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson and Crick 83
LEARNING OUTCOMES: Model
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA

• Contains 4 types of
organic bases:

• adenine (A)
• guanine (G)
• cytosine (C)
• thymine (T)

1.5b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson and Crick 84
LEARNING OUTCOMES: Model
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA

• Organic bases of each strand are

paired in the interior of the helix

• The helix shape is maintained by

hydrogen bonds between organic
bases of opposite strands

85
5’ 3’

the 2 backbones

( pentose sugar
& phosphate
group ) are outside,
3’
the
5’
organic bases
( nitrogenous
bases ) are
paired inside
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA

• The 2 strands must be complementary to each

other
• Adenine (A) must pair with Thymine (T)
with 2 hydrogen bonds
• Guanine (G) must pair with Cytosine (C)
with 3 hydrogen bonds

• For a DNA, amount of organic nitrogenous bases: A

=T;G=C
87
2 Hydrogen bonds

3 Hydrogen bonds

88
 5’ 3’

3’ 5’

The double helix

The helix is “right-handed”, curving up to right. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds (dotted
lines) between the nitrogenous bases, which are paired in the interior of the double helix.
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA

• The 2 strands must run in

opposite directions /
anti-parallel
• 1 strand runs 5’  3’
while another
runs 3’  5’

1.5b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson and Crick 90
LEARNING OUTCOMES: Model
Sugar-phosphate backbone Base pairs Sugar-phosphate backbone

3’
OH
5’

Phosphodiester
bond

5’
OH 91
3’
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: DNA

FUNCTION OF DNA

• Act as the hereditary genetic

material

1.5b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson and Crick 92
LEARNING OUTCOMES: Model
93
94
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

• Single stranded polynucleotide

• Pentose sugar: ribose
• Nitrogenous bases
– Adenine (A)
– Guanine (G)
– Cytosine (C)
– Uracil (U)
95
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids

base is uracil instead of

thymine

One
nucleotide

96
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
97
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

• TYPES OF RNA
1) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
3) Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Function of RNA
• Mainly functions in protein synthesis
• For certain virus, RNA may become the hereditary
genetic material
98
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
RNA mainly functions in protein synthesis
For certain virus, RNA
may become the
hereditary genetic
material

Functions of RNA: as the genome of some viruses eg: retrovirus

( HIV: human immunodeficiency virus )
*Genome: the complete complement of an organism’s genes;
genes
100
an organism’s genetic material
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

101
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

1) mRNA
• it carries the genetic code transcript
(copies) from DNA

• carries it ( mRNA ) from the nucleus (for the

eukaryotes) to the site of protein synthesis
in the cytoplasm
102
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

2) rRNA:
• manufactured in the nucleolus
• forms the ribosomal subunits
( together with ribosomal
proteins)

LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.

mRNA & rRNA

104
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids: RNA

3) tRNA:
• smallest RNA molecules containing
75 - 80 nucleotides

• different tRNAs to transfers

(carry) the different amino acids to a
ribosome during protein synthesis
105
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1.5c) State the types and function of RNA.
tRNA

106
107
 Nucleic acids Functions
DNA •hereditary genetic
material of living
organisms

RNA •involve in protein

synthesis
•in some viruses, RNA
may become the
hereditary genetic
material 108
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids

109
110
 CHAPTER 1: MOLCULES 0F LIFE 1.5: Nucleic Acids

Differences of DNA & RNA

Based on:
•number of polynucleotide strands
•structure of double helix
•types of ;
– pentose sugar
– ( organic ) nitrogenous bases
•location in cells
•chemical stability & existing
•basic form
•function
•molecular mass
•ratio of nitrogenous bases
111
 Differences between DNA & RNA
DNA
consist of 2 polynucleotide
strands
deoxyribose as pentose
sugar
nitrogenous bases are
Adenine, Thymine ,
Guanine, Cytosine
Only one type
RNA
consists of a single
polynucleotide strand
ribose as pentose sugar
organic bases are
Adenine, Uracil , Guanine,
Cytosine
Have many types (mRNA,
tRNA & rRNA)
 Differences between DNA & RNA
DNA RNA
larger molecular mass smaller molecular mass
Stable molecule Less stable molecule
Susceptible to UV damage Relatively resistant to UV
damage

Function as genetic Involved in protein synthesis

information and genetic material for virus
 Differences between DNA & RNA

DNA RNA
ratio of A : T & C : G is 1:1 ratio of A : U & C : G is not 1:
1 (because it is single
stranded)

found only in nucleus manufactured in nucleus but

found throughout the cell

THAT’S ALL 4 CH 1…c u