March, 2015

Rock stress

By Rashid Mkemai
 Introduction

Stress
 Stress is a force applied over an area. One type of stress that
we are all used to is a uniform stress, called pressure

 A uniform stress is a stress wherein the forces act equally from

all directions

 In the Earth the pressure due to the weight of overlying rocks is

a uniform stress (confining stress)
 If stress is not equal from all directions - differential stress
 Introduction

Three kinds of differential stresses.

 Tensional stress
 Compressional stress
 Shear stress
 Introduction

 When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it deform

 Rock deformation caused by stresses are referred to as strain
 Strain is related to change in dimensions and shape of a material.

 The most elementary definition of strain is when the deformation

is along one axis:

Strain(Ԑ) = Change in length/Original length

Material stretched – (+ve)
Material compressed – (-ve)

Check difference with rock mechanics

 Introduction

 Normal strains – changes occurs in the dimensions of a material

but not its shape; in other words, angles do not change.
 Shear strains - involve angles changes but not length.
 Introduction

 Action of stresses can cause material to change in volume -

volume strain. We define volumetric strain Ԑ as:

Ԑ = change in volume/original volume

Stress - strain relation

 It is possible to relate stress and strain by using Hooke’s law
In its simplest form, Hooke’s law can be stated as:

Constant = Stress/Strain
 Where the constant is known as an elastic modulus or simply a
modulus.
 Stress and rock excavations

The design of rock excavations (including tunnels and shafts)

with stable walls and roofs is determined by the following
factors:
 the strength of the rock mass

 the stress condition in the rock mass

 the geometry of the excavation

 The stresses that exist in the rock mass before the initiation of
rock work are related to
 the weight of rock lying above

 geological history of the rock mass.

 High stresses in the rock mass lead to failure

 The stress state in a continuum

 Study an arbitrary surface element ΔA, containing the point P,

in a section surface of a loaded body

When ΔA approaches
zero the ratio ΔF/ΔA is
taken to approach a limit
value
ΔF/ΔA = S,
which defines the stress
vector in the point P
 The stress state in a continuum cont.

 The component of S in the direction of the surface element’s

outward normal n is called the normal stress in the point P of
the surface in question and is designated σ

 The component acting in the surface element’s tangential plane

in P is called shear stress in the point P for the surface in
question and is designated τ.

 S, σ and τ have the dimension force/unit area.

 The stress state in a point

Illustration:
 The stress components on an infinitesimal parallelopiped
Δx, Δy, Δz → 0

Mathematically the stress

state is described by the
symmetrical stress matrix

The principal stresses are usually written σ1 > σ2 > σ3

 The stress state

The geomechanical sign convention

 The primary stresses in the rock mass as well as the stationary
stresses that arise as a result of excavations in the rock mass are
mainly compressive stresses.
 According to the classical continuum mechanical sign convention
stresses and strains are therefore most often negative quantities
 In order to avoid this, within geomechanics the following sign
convention has been agreed.
 The stress state

 Forces and displacements are positive when they act in the positive
directions of the coordinate axes.
 normal strains are regarded positive in compression

 normal stresses are regarded positive in compression

 shear stresses are positive when they act in:

• The negative directions of the coordinate axes on surfaces where the

outward normal acts in the positive directions of the coordinate axes
• The positive directions of the coordinate axes on surfaces where the
outward normal acts in the negative directions of the coordinate axes.
 The stress state

The geomechanical sign convention cont.

 Insitu stress

 Stresses that prevail in the natural, undisturbed rock mass are called
primary, while those that occur subsequent to intervention in the
form of rock excavation are called secondary.

 In-situ stresses is a general term for the stresses occurring in the

rock mass (virgin stress state)
 The primary stress state can normally be described with a vertical
principal stress and two horizontal stresses. Labelled σv, σh and σH
respectively,
σv is purely gravitational and equal to ρgz.
σh - minor principal stresses in the horizontal plane.
σH - major principal stresses in the horizontal plane.
 Factors affecting the primary state of stress

 The forces that give rise to the stress state of the lithosphere can be divided
into two categories.
 Forces which are caused by local phenomena, e.g

 topography,
 crack and effect of growth and melting ice.
 Tectonic forces

Topography
 An irregular topography affects the magnitude and direction of the primary
principal stresses.
 Factors affecting the primary state of stress

Topography
 An irregular topography affects the magnitude and direction of the primary
principal stresses so that they are not orientated vertically and horizontally
 The stress state
Joint systems and discontinuities

Effect of a discontinuity on
the stress state, Hudson
and Cooling (1988).
 Insitu stress

Under the assumption that the rock mass can be regarded as

homogenous, isotropic and linearly elastic and that the horizontal
primary stresses are equal in magnitude.

The gravitational part of the horizontal stresses, and can be

estimated using the following relationship, (Terzaghi and Richart,

1952):

Where,
σv = ρgz
ν = Poisson’s ratio

For a value of Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.25, the relationship between

horizontal and vertical stresses become equal to 1/3
 Virgin stress state in Scandinavia

Measurement of rock stress with the hydraulic fracturing

method has shown that the primary stress state in Scandinavia
can be described according as (Stephansson et al, 1991) :

These expressions should be used only as an initial approximation

of the stress state
 Methods for measurement of rock stress

In the design of underground constructions it is essential to know the

primary stress state of a rock mass.

Methods of measurement;
(i) Methods based on borehole gauges,
(ii) Hydraulic fracturing, and
(iii) Direct measuring with so-called "flat jacks“ and similar methods.
The installation of "flat jacks" requires the removal of much
larger volumes of rock than the other methods. (More cost than
other methods), (extensive disturbance).
 Tunnel and shaft with a circular cross section

The stress in the vicinity of an excavation with a circular cross section

can be determined using the theory of elasticity relations under the
assumption that the rock is linearly elastic and isotropic.
 Tunnel and shaft with a circular cross section

The complete solution that describes the stress state (the secondary
stresses) around a circular opening due to a stress in the x-direction,
σx, and a stress in the y-direction, σy, and which was first presented
by Kirsch (1898), has the following form:
 Tunnel and shaft with a circular cross section

From Kirsch equations

σr = Normal stress acting perpendicular to the excavation boundary in
a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the excavation.

σθ = Normal stress acting parallel to the excavation boundary in a

plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the excavation.

σζ = Normal stress acting parallel to the excavation boundary in the

longitudinal direction of the excavation.
Stress on the boundary of an excavation calculated with
numerical methods

Stress analyses of excavations of varying size and shape have been

conducted and reported by Hoek and Brown (1980).

The relationship between the primary stresses and the tangential

stress, σθ, in two points, T and V, on the boundary is given.
Stress on the boundary of an excavation calculated
with numerical methods
Stress on the boundary of an excavation calculated with
numerical methods
 Numerical methods

During the process of construction in rock the rock mechanic is

often faced with the problem of designing and determining the
stresses around an excavation with a complicated shape.

Stress and deformation analyses of such constructions can be

performed using physical or numerical models.

Numerical methods in principle can be divided into

(i) Continuum models

(ii) Discontinuum models.
 Numerical methods cont.

(i) Continuum models

Continuum models describe the rock as an equivalent rock
mass in which the effects of the discontinuities are included,
without being able to define them specifically.

(ii) Discontinuum models

In the discontinuum models the rock mass is described with a
coupled model, where the intact rock and discontinuities are
described individually.

Most of the programs available on the market are based on

continuum models.
 Numerical methods cont.

(i) Continuum models

Continuum models describe the rock as an equivalent rock
mass in which the effects of the discontinuities are included,
without being able to define them specifically.

(ii) Discontinuum models

In the discontinuum models the rock mass is described with a
coupled model, where the intact rock and discontinuities are
described individually.

Most of the programs available on the market are based on

continuum models.
Thank you for your attention