1. Stress is the force applied to an object.

In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is

placed on a rock. Four types of stresses act on materials.

In response to stress, the rocks of the earth undergo strain, also known as deformation. Strain
usually refers any change in volume or shape. Strain e is defined in elementary form as the
change in length divided by the original length.

Poisson's ratio is a measure of the Poisson effect, that describes the expansion or contraction
of a material in directions perpendicular to the direction of loading.

Poisson's ratio = – Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain

The definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so that normal materials have a positive
ratio.

Elastic Deformation: A temporary shape change that is self-reversing after the force is
removed, so that the object returns to its original shape, is called elastic deformation.

Plastic Deformation: When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is called
plastic deformation.

2. Principal Stress: It is defined as the normal stress calculated at an angle when shear
stress is considered as zero. The normal stress can be obtained for maximum and
minimum values. The maximum value of normal stress is known as major principal stress and
minimum value of normal stress is known as minor principal stress.

There are two types of principal stresses; 2-D and 3-D. The equation of 2-D principal stress is
calculated by the angle when shear stress is equal to zero.

The shift from uniaxial to triaxial loading generates certain complexities as stress In
3dimensional space has 9 stress components. Out of these 9 components however six
components are independent owing to symmetry. A 3D stress tensor can be transformed to
its three principal directions in anew coordinate system. These three new normal stress
becomes three principal stresses. A hydraulic fracture propagates in direction of minimum
principal stress. These 3 principal stresses are neither homogenous nor isotropic. Even the
shape and vertical extent of fracture depends on magnitude of minimum principal stress at
various depths.

3. Overburden stress (σv) is the pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth due to
the total weight of the rocks and fluids above that depth.
For a reservoir rock at depth H with variable density ρ, the overburden stress σv is calculated
as:
Here, σv is in psi, ρ is in lb/ft3, and H is in ft.

Horizontal Stress:
Considering, elastic deformationin a homogenous and isotropic reservoir without tectonic
influences from the outside is assumed imply the following two conditions: (1) σh,
maxσh,minσh because
the stresses in the horizontal plane have to be symmetrical; and (2) εx5εy50 because no
deformation takes place in the horizontal plane. By applying the above two conditions to the
stress-strain relations the following relationship between the vertical and horizontal stresses
can be obtained:

Thus, this equation establishes that poisson’s ratio can have major influence on value of
horizontal stress.

Effective Stress: Considering the effect of fluid pressure, the concept of effective stress comes
into play. The effective stress is given by:

Where α is Biot’s poroelastic constant. Range of α is 0 and 1, typically it varies between 0.7
and 1. The poroelastic constant describes how effectively the fluid pressure counteracts the
total applied stress.

Minimum Horizontal Stress: The effect of pore pressure for estimating minimum horizontal
stress is significant. The minimum horizontal stress is given by:

The minimum horizontal stress varies at various depths due to the changes in the rock
lithology and the pore fluid pressure in the vertical direction. The geometry of a vertical
fracture is highly dependent on the horizontal stress profile along the vertical direction.
 4. Fracture Geometry:
Type A Fracture: They are ideal fractures which are expected to develop from each set of perforation
intervals in a planar fashion.
Condition for propagation: High permeability reservoirs with high porosity and very low young’s
modulus.

Type B Fractures: Theses are single hydraulic fracture developed with natural
fractures activated in a direction perpendicular to the hydraulic fracture.

Type C represents the scenario that the orientations of hydraulic and natural fractures are about the
same so that multiple hydraulic fractures may propagate along the orientation of the preexisting
natural fractures.

Type D
represents the scenario that a complex fracture network is developed in reservoirs having two
orthogonal sets of natural fractures.
These type of fractures tend to develop during hydraulic fracture treatment.