FLUID STATICS

S CS
2.1 Absolute and Gauge Pressure

2.2 Relationship between Pressure and Elevation

2.3 Pressure Measurement : Manometer and Barometer

2.4 Hydrostatic force: Horizontal Flat Surfaces, Rectangular

Wall (vertical and inclined wall)

2.5 Determination the Centre of Pressure on the Surfaces

1
2.6 Hydrostatic force : Submerged Plane Area and Submerged
Curved Surface

2.7 Buoyancy and Stability

2.1 ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURE

- Normally the reference pressure is that of atmosphere, and the
resulting measured pressure is called gage pressure.

- Pressure measured relative to a perfect vacuum is called absolute

pressure.
P abs = P gauge + P atm

Where: Pgauge = gh

If the datum is taken as zero, then the equation can be

written as : P = gh

Gauge Pressure is simply written as P instead of Pgauge.

Pressure in a liquid usually taken as gauge pressure.
2
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i (i.e.,
e absolute zero pressure)
pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric
p p
pressure. Most p pressure-measuringg devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
V
Vacuum pressures: Pressures
P below
b l atmospheric
t h i pressure.

40 kPa
100 kPa.

100  40 60 kPa

4
 Example
p Problem 3.1:
(From Applied Fluid Mechanics Page 53)

Express a pressure off 155 kPa(gage)

E kP ( ) as an absolute
b l t pressure. The
Th
local atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa(atm).
((Ans : 253 kPa(abs))
( ))

Example Problem 3.2:

(From Applied Fluid Mechanics Page 54)

Express a pressure of 225 kPa(abs) as gauge pressure

pressure. The local
atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa(atm).
(Ans : 124 kPa(gauge))

2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE

AND ELEVATION

- The change in pressure in a homogeneous liquid at rest due to a

change in elevation can be calculated from :

P = γh

Where:  P = change in pressure

γ = specific weight of liquid
6
h = change in elevation
 When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest

increases with depth (as
( a Free-body diagram of a rectangular
result of added weight). 7
fluid element in equilibrium.

Pressure in a liquid at rest

increases linearly with
In a room filled with a g
gas,, the variation distance from the free
of pressure with height is negligible. surface.

8
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the
same fluid.
fl id

Example 2.1.1:

Determine the ggaugeg and absolute p pressure at a depth

p of
10 m in a tank filled with water. The atmospheric pressure
is 100kN/m2.

Solution 2.1.1:

pgauge = gh = 1000 x 9.81 x 10

= 98100N/m
98100N/ 2 = 98.1
98 1 kN/
kN/m2

pabsolute = pgauge + patm

= 98.1 + 100
= 198.1 kN/m2 = 198.1 kPa

10
Example 2.1.2:

A container is filled with a fluid at a g

gauge
g ppressure of
200kN/m2.

(a)What is the head in terms of water ?

(b)What is the head in terms of mercury?
(c)If the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa, what is absolute
pressure in the container?

Solution 2.1.2 :

(a) 20.39 m water

(b) 1.50 m of mercury
(c) 300kPa
11

Example 2.1.3:

((a)) Determine the p

pressure at a p
point in a liquid
q if the head
is 60mm of mercury.

(b) A container is filled with oil of specific gravity 0.85.

Determine the pressure at a depth of 2.5m. What is the
head in m of water?

Solution 2.1.3 :

( ) 8.005 kPa
(a)
(b) 2.125 m water 12
 Example
p Problem 3.5:
(From Applied Fluid Mechanics Page 56)

Calculate
C l l t th
the change
h iin water
t pressure ffrom th
the surface
f tto a depth
d th
of 5m.
((Ans : 49.05 kPa))

Example Problem 3.6:

(From Applied Fluid Mechanics Page 56)

Calculate the change in water pressure from the surface to a depth of

3.05m.
(Ans : 29.9 kPa)
13

2-3 ■ PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus,

the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
pressure
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height
at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
g
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects. 14
The basic barometer.
2.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

2.3.1 Barometers

In order to measure atmospheric

pressure, barometer mercury is
commonly used

It consist of a glass tube closed

at one end with the open end
immersed in a container of mercury

For most practical purposes the

contribution of the vapor pressure
can be neglected since it is very
small

15

16
Example 2.3.1 (Barometer) :

A mountain lake has an average temperature of

10˚C and a maximum depth of 40m.

For a barometric pressure of 598 mmHg,

determine the absolute pressure (in Pascals) at
th deepest
the d t partt off the
th lake.
l k

Gi
Given :
a) Specific weight for mercury is 133 kN/m3
b) Specific weight for water at 10˚C
10 C is 9
9.804
804 kN/m3

17

Solutions 2. 3.1 (Barometers)

 The pressure in the lake at any depth, h, is given by

th equation:
the ti

 Where p0 is the pressure at the surface. Since we

want the absolute pressure, p0 will be the local
barometric pressure expressed in a consistent
system
y of units;
that is:

18
 Barometric pressure is indicate the atmospheric
pressure, so that :
pbarometric = p0

 Finally
Finall the press
pressure
re at the deepest part
part, p is
is:

19

20
 21

It is commonly used to measure small and

moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, y,
water, alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
manometer

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 22
Manometers

 Is a p
pressure measuring g devices usingg a technique
q
that involving the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes.

 3 common types:
a) Piezometer tube
b) U-tube
U t b manometert
c) Inclined-tube manometer
23

Inclined well-type manometer.

manometer
(Source: Dwyer Instruments, Inc.)

A simple
p U-tube manometer,, with high g
pressure applied to the right side. 24
a) Piezometer Tube

 Consists
C i t off a vertical
ti l ttube,
b open att the
th top,
t and
d attached
tt h d
to the container in which the pressure desired

 Since this method is involving column of fluid at rest, the

basic equation for pressure (for incompressible fluid) can
be use to relate a reference pressure with the desired
pressure and the height of the column

25

 Equation that relates

between the height of the
column and the pressure
desired is given as

 Or if we set atmospheric
pressure as reference
( i as gage pressure))
(using

26
Advantages
g
Simple
Accurate

Disadvantages
Di d t
Only suitable if the pressure in container is greater
than atmospheric pressure
- Otherwise air would sucked into the system
The pressure to be measured must be relatively
small so the required
q height
g of the column is 27
reasonable
The fluid in the container in which the pressure is to
be measured must be liquid rather than a gas

b) U
U-Tube
Tube Manometer
 Consists a tube formed into the shape of ‘U’
- The fluid in the manometer is called GAGE FLUID

 To find pressure PA in terms of various column heights,

we start at one end of the system
y and work our way y
around to the other end, simply utilizing the basic
equation
q for p
pressure ((incompressible
p fluid))

28
Procedure

 Pressure at A and p
point ((1))
are the same

 Move from point (1) to point

(2)
- Pressure increase γ1h1

29

• Pressure at (2) and (3)

are the same
– Note that we cannot
simply “jump across”
from point (1) to the
point at the same level
at the right hand tube

–P
Pressure iis equall
ONLY for pressure at
30
th same elevation
the l ti
within a continuous
mass of a fluid at rest
• With the pressure at (3) is
specified, we move to the
open end where the
pressure is zero (gage
(
pressure)
– Pressure decrease
γ2h2

• Finally we get the

f ll i relationship
following l ti hi
31

or

32
33

34
35

36
Example 2.3.2 (U-tube manometer) :

A closed tank contains

compressed air and oil
(SGoil = 0.90).

U-tube manometer using

mercury (SGHg = 13.6) is
connected to the tank shown.

Given :
h1 = 36 cm
cm, h2 = 6cm
6cm,h
h3= 9cm
9cm,

Determine the ppressure 37

reading (in kPa) of the gage.

Take the specific gravity of glycerin: 1.263

c)) Inclined-Tube Manometer
 Used to measure small pressure differences accurately

 One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle,θ and the

differential reading l2 is measured along the inclined tube

42

or
 Note that the pressure difference between points (1) and
(2) is due to the vertical distance between the points,
l2sinθ
 For relatively small angles the differential reading along
the inclined tube can be made larger even for small
pressure differences

43
 Hydrostatic Force On Horizontal Flat Surfaces, Rectangular Wall

2.4 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON HORIZONTAL FLAT SURFACES,

RECTANGULAR WALL

241H
2.4.1 Horizontal
i t l Flat
Fl t Surface
S f

3.0m 1 2m
1.2m

2.4m
Oil (sg = 0.9) Oil (sg = 0.9)

1.5m 64
water water

3.0m 3.0m
Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4
 Hydrostatic Force On Horizontal Flat Surfaces, Rectangular Wall

Example
p Problem 4.2:
(From Applied Fluid Mechanics Page 86)

If the
th ddrum iin Fi
Figure 4
4.3
3 iis open tto th
the atmosphere
t h att th
the ttop,
calculate the force on the bottom.

Solutions 4.2 :

PB = P atm + γ oil (2.4m) + γ water (1.5m)

γoil = (0.90) x (9.81 kN/m3) = 8.83 kN/m3

PB = 0 + (8.83 kN/m3) (2.4m) + 9.81 kN/m3(1.5m)
PB = 35 9 kN/m2
35.9

F = PB A
F = (35.9 kN/m2) (7.07 m2) = 253.8 kN
65

Hydrostatic Force On Horizontal Flat Surfaces, Rectangular Wall

2.4.2 Rectangular Wall

h/2 FR = Pavg x A
h Pavg
Pavg = γ(h/2)
FR
h/3 Center of pressure

Figure 4.6

Resultant Force On A Vertical Rectangular Wall

FR = γ(h/2) A
66
HYDROSTATIC FORCES

A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam,

the wall of a liquid storage tank
tank, or the
hull of a ship at rest, is subjected to
fluid pressure distributed over its Hoover Dam.
surface
f when
h exposed d tto a liliquid.
id
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic
forces form a system of parallel forces
forces,
and we often need to determine the
magnitude of the force and its point of
application which is called the center
application,
of pressure.

When analyzing hydrostatic forces on

submergedg surfaces, the atmospheric
p
pressure can be subtracted for simplicity
67
when it acts on both sides of the structure.

Example
p Problem 4.4:

IIn Figure
Fi 4.6,
4 6 th
the flfluid
id iis gasoline
li ((sg=0.68)
0 68) and
d th
the ttotal
t lddepth
th iis
3.7m. The wall is 12.2m long. Calculate the magnitude of the
resultant force on the wall and the location of the center of
pressure.

68
Resultant Force On An Inclined Rectangular Wall

h/2 LC
LP
h FR
L
h/3
L/3

69

Center of pressure
p

2.5 DETERMINATION THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON

THE SURFACES

Shape A C IC
B

B B4
Square
q B/2 B2
2 12

70
BD3
D
Rectangle C BD 12
2
D/2
 2.5 Determination The Center Of Pressure On The Surface

Shape A C IC

H BH3
H BH
Triangle 3 36
C
2
H/3

D D4
D2
Circle C
2 64
4
D
D/2

R2 4R
0.1102 R4
Semicircle 2 3
R

71

2.6 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SUBMERGED PLANE AREA

AND SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACE

Pressure :

p = g
ghC

Force :

F = gAhC

Location Center Of Pressure :

72

hP = Ic sin2  + hc
Ahc
 Hydrostatic force
on an inclined
plane surface
completely
submerged in a
liquid.

The pressure at the

centroid of a surface is
equivalent to the average
73
pressure on the surface.

The resultant force acting on a

plane surface is equal to the
product of the pressure at the
centroid of the surface and the
surface area
area, and its line of
action passes through the
center of pressure.

second moment of area

(area moment of inertia)
about the x-axis.

74
Special Case:
Submerged
Rectangular Plate
Hydrostatic force acting
on the top surface of a
submerged tilted
rectangular plate
plate.

75

Hydrostatic force
acting on the top
surface
f off a
submerged vertical
rectangular
g p
plate.

76
 Hydrostatic
H d t ti fforce acting
ti
on the top surface of a
submerged
g horizontal
rectangular plate.

77

2.6.1 Submerged
g Plane Area

Example 2.6.1.1:

An inclined rectangular gate, 1.5m by 1.0m with water on one side

is shown in Figure below. Determine :
a) The total resultant force acting on the gate
b) The location centre of pressure

60 0
2.0m
hC Rectangular gate
hP 78

F
1 5m
1.5m
1.0m
Solution 2.6.1.1 :

A = 1.5 x 1.0 = 1.5m2

hc = 2 + 0.5 sin 600 = 2 + 0.5 (0.866) = 2.433 m

force, F = gAh
a) The resultant force gAhc
= (1000)(9.81)(1.5)(2.433)
= 35.8 kN

b) hP = Ic sin2  + hc where : Ic = (Bh3)/12

Ahc = [1.5 (1.0)3]/(12)
= 0.125 m4 79

Therefore:
hP = (0.125) sin2 60 + 2.433 = 2.46m
(1.5)(2.433) (from the free water surface)

Example 2.6.1.2:

One plat with radius 75cm submerged in water.

Find:
a) The total resultant force acting on the gate
b) The location centre of pressure

90 cm

80
180 cm
150 cm
 B

Answer : a) 23
23.4
4 kN
b) 1.38 m
 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED
CURVED SURFACES

Determination of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface.

84
 In many structures of
practical application,
the submerged
surfaces are not flat,
but curved as here at
Glen Canyon Dam in
Utah and Arizona.
85

When a curved surface is above

the liquid, the weight of the liquid The hydrostatic force acting on a circular
and the vertical component of the surface always passes through the center
y
hydrostatic force act in the of the circle since the pressure forces are
opposite directions. normal to the surface and they all pass 86
through the center.
Submerged Curved Surface

Vertical Component :
E D
Fv = gV
Horizontal Component :

FH = gh
hcAV C B

FR FH
Resultant Hydrostatic Force:

FR =  FH2 + FV2 FV
87

This Force acts at an angle :

A R
 = tan -1 [ Fv /FH ] to the horizontal

Example 2.6.2.1:

A sluice gate is in the form of a circular arc of radius 6m as shown in

figure below
below. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force on the gate, and the location with respect to O of a point on its
line of action.

water Rv
30 0
S O
R 30 0

h=6m  Rh 88

Q
Solution 2.6.2.1:

Depth of water, h = 2 x 6 sin 300 = 6 m

Horizontal component of force on gate = Rh per unit length

= Resultant force on PQ per unit length
=  g x h x h/2 =  g x h2/2
= (1000 x 99.81
81 x 36) / 2 Nm-1
= 176.58 kNm-1

Vertical component of force on gate = Rv per unit length

= weight of water displaced by segment PSQ
89
t OPSQ -  OPQ)  g
= (sector
(
= [(60 / 360 ) x ( ) x 62 – 6 sin 300 x 6 cos 300] x 103 x 9.81 Nm-1
= 32.00 kNm-1

Solution 2.6.2.1:

Gate, R =  (Rv 2 + Rh2)

Resultant Force on Gate
=  (176.58 2 + 32.002)
= 179.46 kNm-1

If R is inclined at an angle  to the horizontal,

tan  = Rv / Rh = 32.00 / 176.58

 = 10.27
10 270 to the horizontal

Since the surface of the g

gate is cylindrical,
y , the resultant force90R
must pass through O.
Example 2.6.2.2:

The tank in figure below is 3 m wide. Neglecting the atmospheric

pressure compute the hydrostatic horizontal
pressure, horizontal, vertical and resultant
force on quarter-circle panel BC. Draw the resultant force on that
panel.

4m

O 5m
B
95

5m

C
2.7 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY

2.7.1 Buoyancy

A body in a fluid, whether floating or submerged, is buoyed

up by
b a force
f equall to
t the
th weight
i ht off the
th fluid
fl id displaced.
di l d

2.7.2 Buoyancy Force

Fb = γf Vd
100
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

The buoyant force acting on

the plate is equal to the
weight of the liquid
displaced by the plate
plate.
For a fluid with constant
density,
y, the buoyant
y force is
independent of the distance of
the body from the free surface.
It is
i also
l iindependent
d d t off th
the
density of the solid body.

A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged

in a liquid parallel to the free surface.

101

The buoyanty forces acting g on a

solid body submerged in a fluid and
on a fluid body of the same shape
at the same depth are identical
identical.
The buoyant force FB acts upward
through the centroid C of the
displaced volume and is equal in
magnitude to the weight W of the
displaced fluid, but is opposite in
di ti
direction. For
F a solidlid off uniform
if
density, its weight Ws also acts
through the centroid, but its
magnitude is not necessarily equal
to that of the fluid it displaces.
((Here Ws > W and thus Ws > FB;
this solid body would sink.)

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body

immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body,
y, and it acts upward
p through
g the centroid of the displaced
p
volume. 102
 For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

A solid body dropped

into a fluid
f will sink,
float, or remain at rest
at any point in the
fluid, depending on its
average density
relative to the density
of the fluid. 103

Stability of Immersed and

Floating Bodies

Stability is easily
understood by
analyzing a ball
on the floor.

For floating bodies such as ships, stability

104
is an important consideration for safety.
A floating body possesses vertical
stability, while an immersed neutrally
buoyant
y bodyy is neutrallyy stable since it
does not return to its original position
after a disturbance.

An immersed neutrally buoyant

body is (a) stable if the center of
gravity G is directly below the center
of buoyancy B of the body
body, (b)
neutrally stable if G and B are
coincident, and (c) unstable if G is
directly above B.
105

A ball in a trough between

two hills is stable for small
disturbances but unstable
disturbances,
for large disturbances.
When the center of gravity G of an immersed
neutrally
t ll b buoyantt b
body
d iis nott vertically
ti ll
aligned with the center of buoyancy B of the
body,
y, it is not in an equilibrium
q state and
would rotate to its stable state, even without
any disturbance.

106
A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of
gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the metacenter M is above
point G. However, the body is unstable if point M is below point G.

Metacentric height
g GM: The distance between the center of g gravity
y
G and the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action
of the buoyant force through the body before and after rotation.
The llength
Th h off the
h metacentric i h
height
i h GM above
b G is
i a measure off the
h
stability: the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body. 107