CHAPTER 2

Fluid Statics

Chapter Objectives:
 Describe pressure and pressure distribution.
 Describe gage, absolute, and vacuum pressure.
 Apply the hydrostatic equation and the manometer equations to predict pressure.
 Apply the buoyancy equation to predict forces.

2.1 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the ratio of normal force F to area A at a point.

F
p (kPa, Pa, psi)
A

where:

F = force (kN, N, lb)

A = area (m2, in2)

2.2 Types of Pressure

1. Gage Pressure – is pressure above or below the local atmosphere and can be measured by pressure
gages or manometers.

2. Absolute Pressure – is measured above absolute zero (perfect vacuum).

pabs = pgage + patm

where
Patm = atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric Pressure (Barometric Pressure) is pressure caused by gasses which composes in the
atmosphere. It is an absolute pressure.

Under Normal Conditions:

patm = 101.325 kPa

= 14.7 psi
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg

 Note: If not stated, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.

2.3 Pressure Measuring Device
Manometer – is a pressure measuring device that involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes.

Types of Manometer
1. Open-manometer
2. Differential manometer
3. Piezometer

1. Open-Manometer – has an atmosphere surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage pressures.

Open

Pipe


2. Differential Manometer– without an atmosphere surface and capable of measuring difference in

pressure between two pipes or containers.

Pipe 2


Pipe 1


3. Piezometer – The simplest type of manometer consist of a vertical tube, open at the top, and
attached to the conduit or pipe in which the pressure is desired.

Open

Pipe

2.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth of Fluid

Case 1:

The pressure at any point below the free surface of a liquid equals the product of the unit
weight of the liquid and the depth of the point.

P = h

Case 2:

The difference in pressure between any two points in a homogenous fluid at rest is equal to the product
of the unit weight of the fluid and the vertical distance between the points.

h


P2 = P1 + h

 Note: According to Pascal’s Law “At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all
directions”.
Pressure Head (h)

The height “h” of a column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight “” that will produce an intensity of
pressure p is defined as pressure head.

p
h


To convert height of liquid A to liquid B

(s • h)A = (s • h)B

Pressure below layers of different liquids

Interface Air pressure, P

Liquid 1 h1
Interface

Liquid 2 h2
Interface

Liquid 3 h3

 Pressure at the interface of liquid 1 and liquid 2,

pinterface = p + 1h1

 Pressure at the bottom,

pbottom = p + 1h1 + 2h2 + 3h3

Example 1
What is the pressure 40 m below the ocean?

Example 2

Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 12 m below the free surface of oil of sp. gr. 0.75 if the
barometric reading is 74v0 mmHg.

Example 3

A tank contains oil sp. gr. = 0.80, gasoline sp. gr. =0.90, and sea water. If the depths of the liquids are
0.50 m, 0.80 m and 1.0 m for oil, gasoline and sea water, respectively. (a) Find the pressure at a depth of
0.7 m, (b) Find the pressure at the interface of gasoline and sea water and, (c) Find the pressure at the
bottom of the tank.

Example 4

If the pressure in the tank of oil (s = 0.8) is 300 kPa, what is the equivalent height in (a) meters of water,
(b) meters of gasoline and (c) mmHg
Example 5

For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.

1m

Hg 1.5 m

Oil (s = 0.8)

Example 6

From the figure shown,

Air A
Air
0.4 m
C
0.4 m
Oil (s=0.90)
0.5 m
B
H2O
1.0 m
D

a) Calculate the pressure at A.

b) Calculate the pressure at B.

c) Calculate the pressure at D.

Plate no. 2 Fluid Statics

1. If a depth of liquid of 1.2 m causes a pressure of 6 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the liquid?

Ans. 0.51

2. If the pressure 17 m below a liquid is 260.4 Kpa, determine it’s (a) unit weight, (b) mass density,
and (c) specific gravity.

Ans. (a) 15.32 kN/m3, (b)1,561.43 kg/m3, (c) 1.56

3. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 2,560 psf, what is the pressure 70' below this point?

Ans. 7,059.04 lb/ft3

4. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.85) surface in a closed tank is 126 kPa absolute,
what is the pressure 3 m below the surface?

Ans. 49. 69 kPa

5. A pressure gage at elevation 12 m at the side of the tank reads 100 kPa. Another gage at elevation
7 m reads 140 kPa. (a) Determine the specific gravity of the liquid.

Ans. 0.815

6. An open tank contains 5.7 m of water covered with 2.8 m of kerosene (  = 8 kN/m3). Find the
pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.

Ans. 22.4 kPa, 78.32 kPa

7. If the atmospheric pressure is 108.2 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 192 mmHg
vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank.

Ans. 82.58 kPa

8. Convert 580 mm of mercury to (a) oil(s = 0.82), (b) water, (c) gasoline (s = 0.91).

Ans. (a) 9.62 m, (b) 7.89 m, (c) 8.67 m

9. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3, what is the approximate height of Mt.
Manunggal if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 512 mm and at the same
time another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 360 mm.

Ans. 1690 m
10. A tank is fitted with a manometer on the side, as shown.
The liquid in the bottom of the tank and in the manometer
has a specific gravity (S) of 3.0. The depth of this bottom
liquid is 20 cm. A 15-cm layer of water lies on top of the
bottom liquid. Find the position of the liquid surface in the
manometer. Answer: 5.0 cm

11. Is the gage pressure at the center of the pipe (a) negative,
(b) zero, or (c) positive? Neglect surface tension effects and
state your rationale. Answer: (b) 0

12. What is the pressure at the center of pipe B?

13. A device for measuring the specific weight of a liquid consists

of a U-tube manometer as shown. The manometer tube has an
internal diameter of 0.5 cm and originally has water in it. Exactly
2 cm3 of unknown liquid is then poured into one leg of the
manometer, and a displacement of 5 cm is measured between
the surfaces as shown. What is the specific weight of the unknown
liquid?

14. A vertical conduit is carrying oil (S = 0.95). A differential

mercury manometer is tapped into the conduit at points
A and B. Determine the difference in pressure between
A and B when h = 3 in. What is the difference in piezometric
head between A and B?

15. The deflection on the manometer is h meters when the

pressure in the tank is 150 kPa absolute. If the absolute
pressure in the tank is doubled, what will the deflection
on the manometer be?
2.5 Pressure Force on Surfaces

A. Plane Surface

Liquid Surface O


hp h h
y

F A
yp
e
cg dA
cp

For a plane surface with area A, the total pressure force can be derived by the following formula:

F   p dA   h dA
A A

where h is the depth of fluid from its surface.

If the centroid of the area is known, the pressure force can be derived as

FhA

where h is the depth of A’s centroid.

The centre of pressure is the point through which the resultant pressure acts.

2
 y pdA y dA
A A
yp  
 p dA  y dA
A A
The numerator is the moment of inertia of the surface about the axis through O, and it equals to
 I O  I gx  y A

Therefore
I gx
yp  y 
yA

where
I gx
 eccentricity  e
yA

Moment of inertia for common shapes of plane surface

Common Shapes Area y Igx

y
bh h bh 3
cg h 2 12

y 1 2 bh3
h bh h
2 3 36
cg
b

r y r4
r2 r
4
cg

y r2 4r 0.11r 4
cg r or 0.424r
2 3
Example 1
A vertical triangular surface of height h and the horizontal base width b is submerged in a liquid with its
vertex at the liquid surface. Determine the total force F acting on one side and its location from the
liquid surface.

Example 2
A vertical rectangular gate 1.5 m wide and 3 m high is submerged in water with its top edge 2 m below
the water surface. Find the total pressure acting on one side of the gate and its location from the
bottom.

Example 3
A vertical rectangular gate as shown is 2 m wide, 6 m high is hinged at the top, has oil (sp. gr. = 0.84)
standing 8 m deep on one side. (a) Compute the force of liquid on the gate, (b) How far is the force of
liquid on the gate from the hinge.(c) How much horizontal force applied at the bottom is needed to
open the gate?

Oil
8m
s = 0.84
Example 4
The gate in the figure shown is 1.5 m wide, hinged at point A, and rest against a smooth wall at B.
Compute a) the total force on the gate due to seawater (b) the reaction at B, and c) the reaction at
hinged A.

Seawater
5m B

2m
A
A
3m
B. Curved Surface
For curved surfaces, the pressure force is divided into horizontal and vertical components. The vertical
force Fy is the total weight of the fluid above the curved surface and its center of pressure acts through
its center of gravity. The horizontal force Fx equals to the pressure force on a vertical plane surface
projected by the curved surface. The resultant force is a triangular combination of the horizontal and
vertical parts.

Case 1: Fluid is above the curved surface.

Fx   h A

B C L.S.
Fy   VABCD

cg h
Fy
F  Fx 2  Fy 2 A
F

e
Fx cp
Fy
tan  
Fx D

Case 2: Fluid is below the curved surface.

Fx   h A L.S.
B C

Fy   VABCD
cg h

D
F  Fx 2  Fy 2

Fx e cp
Fy
tan   A
Fx
F
Fy
Example 1
Determine the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force per meter length
acting on the three-quarter cylinder gate shown.

W.S.

4m

3m

A
Example 2
In the figure shown, determine the horizontal
and vertical components of the total force L.S.
acting on the cylinder per meter of its length.

A 3m

45°
Problem Set 3 Total Pressure Force on Surfaces

1. A vertical rectangular plane of height h and base b is submerged in a liquid with its top edge at the liquid
surface. Determine the total force P acting on one side and its location from the liquid surface.
Ans. P = bd2/2, yp = 2d/3
2. A vertical circular gate of radius r is submerged in a liquid with its top edged flushed on the liquid surface.
Determine the magnitude and the location of the total force acting on one side of the gate.
Ans. P =   r3

3. A square frame 3 m by 3 m in dimension is submerged in water vertically with its top 3 m from the surface. If
oil (s = 0.80) occupies the top meter. Determine the magnitude and location of the force acting on the
frame. Ans. P = 379.65 kPa, yp = 4.47 m

P
4. A gate shown is quarter of circle
at 7 ft. diameter and 5 ft. wide
perpendicular to the sketch. Find L.S.
the force P just sufficient to
prevent rotation about hinge A.
Neglect the weight of the gate.
A

5. The crest shown consist of a cylindrical surface of which AB is the base supported y a structural frame hinged
at O. The length of the gate is 10 m. Compute the magnitude and location of the horizontal and vertical
components of the total pressure on AB.

W.S. B

8m

55°
A

6. A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5 m wide is 3 m high. It is submerged in oil having sp.
gr. of 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2 m. determine the magnitude and location of the
total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the gate.

Ans. 54.3 kN, yp = 3.167 m

7. A vertical plate 4 m x 4 m is immersed in a position such that the center of pressure shall be 6 cm from the
center of gravity.(a) How far below the oil surface should the horizontal upper plate be placed, (b) Locate
the position of the center of pressure from the oil surface, and (c) What si the hydrostatic force acting on
the vertical plate.

Ans. (a) 20.22 m, (b) 22.28 m, (c) 2790.4 m

8. The cylinder in Fig. 5.1 extends 5 ft. into the paper. Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the
pressure force on the cylinder.

L.S.

4 ft

45°

Fig. 5.1

9. In the figure shown, the 1.2 m diameter cylinder, 1.2 m long is acted upon by water on the left and oil having
sp.gr. of 0.80 on the right. Determine the components of the reaction at B if the cylinder weighs 20 kN.

0.6 m
water

3m oil
1.4 m

10. In the figure shown is a quarter circle 7 ft wide, hinged at B and resting against a smooth wall at A. Compute
the reaction forces at A and B.

L.S.

seawater 5 ft

6 ft

B
11. A sluice gate is in the form of a circular arc of radius 6 m as shown in the figure. Calculate the magnitude
of the resultant force on the gate.

L.S.

5 ft
30°
water
30°

12. A vertical circular gate in a tunnel 8 m in diameter has oil (sp. gr.= 0.86) on one side and air on the other side.
If oil is 12 m above the invert and the air pressure is 40 kPa, where will a single support be located (above
the invert tunnel) to hold the gate in position?
Ans. y = 2.77 m

Oil

12 m s = 0.86

8m

13. In the figure, the gate AB is hinged at A and restrained by a stopper

at B. The stop B will break if the force on it reaches 9000 lb. The
length of the gate perpendicular to the sketch is 5 ft. (a) Find the
critical water depth, (b) Compute the hydrostatic force due to
water depth, and (c) Location of hydrostatic force from the hinge.
Ans. (a) 20.23 ft, (b) 17,531.28 lb, (c) 1.54 ft
 h A

B F = 9000 lb

14. The gate shown in the figure is hinged at A and rests on a smooth floor B. The gate is 3 m square and oil of
having sp. gr. 0.84 sands to height of 1.5 m above the hinged A. The air above oil surface is under pressure of
7 kpa above atmosphere. If the gate weighs 5 kN, determine the vertical force F required to open it.
Ans. 172.31 kN

Air, p = 8 kPa

Oil 2m

(s = 0.84)F A

30°
B

15. From the figure shown, gate AB is 15 ft high and 4 ft. wide. Depth of fresh water on the left side is 12 ft., and
that of the right side is sea water at a depth “h”. The gate is hinged at A, 3 ft above the fresh water surface.
The gate will open to let fresh water out when the ocean tide is falling.
 Fresh Water
12'
h Seawater
Stop

a) Compute the hydrostatic force on fresh water.

b) Neglecting the weight of the gate, at what depth “h” will the gate open? There is a stopper at
B to prevent the seawater from getting in when the tide rises.

Ans. (a) 17,971.2 lb, (b) 11.79 ft

16. A 6 ft diameter weighs 5,000 lb and is 5 ft long. Determine the reactions at A and B neglecting friction.

Oil

17. Compute the vertical and horizontal components of the hydrostatic force on the hemispherical boulder
shown.

L.S.

seawater
12 ft

3
2.6 Buoyancy

Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float in a liquid.

Archimedes’ Principle

“A body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force called the buoyant force, which is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced.”

VD

VD

fluid BF fluid

BF

BF = fluidVD

where:
fluid = unit weight of fluid
VD = volume displaced (or volume of the body below the liquid surface)

To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting and apply conditions of static equilibrium.

 Fx 0  Fy  0 M  0

Case1:
For homogeneous body floating on a homogeneous liquid, the volume displaced is:

 body  body S body

VD  Vbody  Vbody  Vbody
 liquid  liquid S liquid
Case 2:
If the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as vertical cylinders, blocks etc.:

Draft (D),

sbody fluid H
D H D
sliquid

Case 3:

If the body is of uniform cross-sectional area A, the area submerged As is:

sbody
As  A As
sliquid fluid

Example 1:
An iceberg having specific gravity of 0.92 is floating on salt water. If the volume of ice above water
surface is 1000 cu.m., what is the total volume of the ice?

Example 2:
A hollow cylinder 1 m in diameter and 2 m high weighs 3825 N. (a) How many kN of lead weighing 110 kN/m3 must
be fastened to the outside bottom of the cylinder to make it float with 1.5 m submerged in water? (b) How many
kN of lead if it is placed inside the cylinder?
Problem Set 4 Buoyancy

1. A stone weighs 350 N in air. When submerged in water, it weighs 240 N. Find the volume and the specific gravity
of the stone. Ans. 0.0012 m3, 3.18

2. A body having a sp. gr. of 0.70 floats on a liquid of sp. gr. 0.80. The volume of the body above the liquid surface
is what percent of its total volume? Ans. 12.5%

3. A wooden buoy (s = 0.62) is 50 mm by 50 mm by 3 m long is made to float in sea water (s = 1.025). How many N
of steel (s = 7.85) should be attached to the bottom to make the buoy float with exactly 450 mm exposed above
the water surface? Ans. 21.255 N

4. A timber is 30 cm square and has sp. gr. of 0.50. A man weighing 70 kg standing at a point 60 cm from one end
causes that end to be just submerged. How long is the timber?

5. A block of wood if placed in water will float with 6” projecting above the water surface and if placed in alcohol
(sp. gr. = 0.82) will float with 4” projecting above the alcohol surface. Find the sp. gr. of the wood.
Ans. 0.603

6. A wooden buoy of sp. gr. = 0.75 floats in a liquid with sp. gr. of 0.85.
(a) What is the percentage of the volume above the liquid surface to the total volume of the body?
(b) If the volume above the liquid surface is 0.0145 m3, what is the weight of the wooden buoy?
(c) What load will cause the body to be fully submerged?
Ans. (a) 11.76%, (b) 0.907 kN, (c) 0.121 kN

7. A stone cube 280 mm on each side and weighing 425 N is lowered into a tank containing a layer of water 1.50 m
thick over a layer of mercury. Determine the position of the block when it has reached equilibrium.
Ans. the block wil float with 21.67 mm below the mercury surface

8. The buoy has 80N of steel weight attached. The buoy has lodged against a rock 2 m deep. Compute the angle 
with the horizontal at which the bout will lean, assuming the rock exerts moment on the buoy.

2m

Rock

Ans. 590
9. From the figure shown, the gate is 1 m wide and is hinged at the bottom of the gate.

Stopper

3m

2m
Water Hinge

a) Compute the hydrostatic force acting on the gate.

b) Compute the location of the center of pressure of the gate from the hinged
c) Determine the minimum volume of concrete (Unit weight = 23.6 kN/m3) needed to keep the gate in a closed
position.

10. A concrete block with a volume of 0.023 cu. m. is tied to one end of a wooden post having dimensions of 200
mm x 200 mm by 3 m long and placed in fresh water. Unit weight of wood is 6.4 kN/m3 and that of concrete is 23.5
kN/m3. (a) Determine the length of the wooden post above the water surface, (b) Determine the volume of
additional concrete to tied to the bottom of the post to make the top flush with the water surface, and (c) Det.
the total weight of concrete to make its top flush with the water surface.
Ans. (a) 0.24 m, (b) 0.0069 m3, (c) 702.4 N

11. A piece of wood of sp. gr. 0.65 is 3 in square and 5 ft long. Determine (a) the volume of the lead having a unit
weight of 700 pcf that should be fastened at one end of the stick so that it will float upright in 1 ft out of water, (b)
the weight of the lead.

3 in a
p   h 1  
 g

1'

4'
Lead

Ans. (a) 0.00459 ft3, (b) 3.21 lb

2.7 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Immersed Bodies
When a body is completely immersed in a liquid, its stability depends on the relative positions of the center of
gravity of the body and the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid which is called the center of buoyancy. If the
center of buoyancy is above the center of gravity any tipping of the body produces a righting couple, and
consequently, the body is stable. However, if the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy, any tipping
produces an increasing overturning moment, thus causing the body to turn through 180°.

Figure 5.1 Conditions of stability for immersed bodies

(a) Stable, (b) Neutral, and (c) Unstable

Floating Bodies
The question of stability is more involved for floating bodies than for immersed bodies because the center of
buoyancy may take different positions with respect to the center of gravity, depending on the shape of the body
and the position in which it is floating. For example, consider the cross section of a ship shown in Fig. 5.2a. Here
the center of gravity G is above the center of buoyancy C. Therefore, at first glance it would appear that the ship is
unstable and could flip over. However, notice the position of C and G after the ship has taken a small angle of heel.
As shown in Fig. 5.2b, the center of gravity is in the same position, but the center of buoyancy has moved outward
of the center of gravity, thus producing a righting moment. A ship having such characteristics is stable.

Figure 5.2 Ship stability relations.

The reason for the change in the center of buoyancy for the ship is that part of the original buoyant volume, as
shown by the wedge shape AOB, is transferred to a new buoyant volume EOD. Because the buoyant center is at
the centroid of the displaced volume, it follows that for this case the buoyant center must move laterally to the
right. The point of intersection of the lines of action of the buoyant force before and after heel is called the
metacenter M, and the distance MG is called the metacentric height. If MG is positive—that is, if M is above G—the
ship is stable; however, if MG is negative, the ship is unstable.

Figure 5.3
(a) Plan view of ship at waterline.
(b) Section A-A of ship.

Elements of a floating body:

W = weight of the body

BF = buoyant force (always equal to W for a floating body)
G = center of gravity of the body
C = center of buoyancy in the upright position
C’ = center of buoyancy in the tilted position
VD = displaced volume
M = metacenter, the point of intersection between the line of action of the buoyant force and the axis of the body
c = center of gravity of the wedges (immersion and emersion)
s = horizontal distance between cg’s of the wedges
v = volume of the wedge of emersion
 = angle of tilting
MC = distance from M to C
GC = distance from G to C
MG = distance from M to G or metacentric height
Righting moment or overturning moment

RM or OM = W(x)

Metacentric height

MG = MC ± GC

Use + if G is below C
- if G is above C

Note: M is always above C

Value of MC
Moment due to shifting of BF = moment due to shifting of wedge

BF(z) = F(s)
BF =  VD
F=v
z= MC sin
 VD MC sin =  v s

vs
MC  B
VD sin 
F W x

 M

G 

L
C  
C’

s BF F

Figure 5.4 waterline section

For small values of ,   0 or  = 0

B/2
1  B   B   B/2tan
Volume of wedge, v      tan   L 
2  2   2  
 1
Volume of wedge, v = v  LB 2 tan 
8
2
For small values of , s  B
3
1 2 2 
LB tan   B 
8 3 
MC = but for small values of , sin  tan
VD sin 

1
LB3
12 1
MC = but LB 3 is the moment of inertia of the waterline section, I
VD 12

I
MC  Note: this formula can be applied to any section
VD

Example 1
A block of wood 30 cm square in cross section and 60 cm long weighs 318 N. Will the block float with sides vertical
as shown?

Example 2
A block of wood (s = 0.64) is in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped having a 10 cm square base. If the block
floats in salt water with its square base horizontal, what is the maximum height for stable equilibrium in the
upright position?

H
PROBLEM SET 5

1. A regular scow, 9 m wide, 15 m long, and 3.6 m high has a draft of 2.4 m in seawater. Its center of gravity is 2.7 m
above its bottom. (a) Determine the initial metacentric height. b) If the scow tilts one side is just at the point of
submergence, determine the righting or overturning moment?

2. A plastic cube of side x and sp. gr. 0.84 is placed vertically in water. Is the cube stable?

Oil

3. A barge 20 ft wide and 50 ft long is loaded with rocks as shown. Assume that the center of gravity of the rocks
and barge is located along the centerline at the top surface of the barge. If the rocks and the barge weigh 400,000
lb, will the barge float upright or tip over?

4. A floating body has a square cross section with side w as shown in the figure. The center of gravity is at the
centroid of the cross section. Find the location of the water line, ℓ/w, where the body would be neutrally stable
(GM = 0). If the body is floating in water, what would be the specific gravity of the body material?