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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learn the reasons for sampling
Develop an understanding about different
sampling methods
Distinguish between probability & non probability
sampling
Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages
of each sampling methods

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What is research?
• “Scientific research is systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about
the presumed relations among such phenomena.”
– Kerlinger, 1986

Empirical – originating in or based on observation,

relying on experience

• Research is an organized and systematic way of

finding answers to questions
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Important Components of Empirical Research
Problem statement, research questions, purposes,
benefits
Theory, assumptions, background literature
Variables and hypotheses
Operational definitions and measurement
Research design and methodology
Instrumentation, sampling
Data analysis
Conclusions, interpretations, recommendations

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The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when;

A survey of the entire population is impracticable

Budget constraints restrict data collection
Time constraints restrict data collection
Results from data collection are needed quickly
SAMPLING
If the data you collect really are the same as you would get
from the rest, then you can draw conclusions from those
answers which you can relate to the whole group.

This process of selecting just a small group of cases from

out of a large group is called sampling.

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SAMPLING
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths
about that population” (Field, 2005)
Why sample?
Resources (time, money) and workload
Gives results with known accuracy that
can be calculated mathematically

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SAMPLING
The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
Registrar’s office
Class rosters
Must assess sampling frame errors

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Sampling Frame
Within this population, there will probably be
only certain groups that will be of interest to your
study, this selected category is your sampling
frame.
SAMPLING……
What is your population of interest?
To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
All doctors

School children

Indians

Women aged 15-45 years

Other

Can you sample the entire population?

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SAMPLING…….
3 factors that influence sample representative-
ness
 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response

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SAMPLING BREAKDOWN 13
SAMPLING …….
STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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There are two types of sampling
methods:
Probability sampling involves
random selection, allowing you to
make strong statistical inferences
about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling
involves non-random selection
based on convenience or other
criteria, allowing you to easily
collect data.

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Sampling techniques
Types of Samples

Probability (Random) Samples

Simple random sample
Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample
Multistage sample
Multiphase sample
Cluster sample
Non-Probability Samples
Convenience sample
Purposive sample
Quota

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Process
The sampling process comprises several stages:
Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Reviewing the sampling process

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Population definition
A population can be defined as including all
people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
 Because there is very rarely enough time or
money to gather information from everyone
or everything in a population, the goal
becomes finding a representative sample (or
subset) of that population.

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 Population definition…….
Note also that the population from which the sample is
drawn may not be the same as the population about which
we actually want information. Often there is large but not
complete overlap between these two groups due to frame
issues etc .
Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we
might study rats in order to get a better understanding of
human health, or we might study records from people born
in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in
2009.

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A probability sampling scheme is one in which every
unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero)
of being selected in the sample, and this probability
can be accurately determined.

. When every element in the population does have the

same probability of selection, this is known as an
'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such
designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting'
because all sampled units are given the same weight.

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Simple random sampling
As the name suggests is a completely random method of
selecting the sample. This sampling method is as easy as
assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then
randomly choosing from those numbers through an
automated process.
Example
You want to select a simple random sample of 100
employees of Company X. You assign a number to every
employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and
use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.

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Stratified Random sampling 
Iinvolves a method where a larger population can be
divided into smaller groups, that usually don’t overlap
but represent the entire population together. While
sampling these groups can be organized and then draw a
sample from each group separately. A common method is
to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity and similar
ways.
Example
The company has 800 female
employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure
that the sample reflects the gender
balance of the company, so you
sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use
random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men,
which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.

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STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each stratum

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Cluster random sampling 
It is a way to randomly select participants when they are
geographically spread out. Cluster sampling usually
analyzes a particular population in which the sample
consists of more than a few elements, for example, city,
family, university etc. The clusters are then selected by
dividing the greater population into various smaller
sections.
CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Two types of cluster
sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of
the elements within
selected clusters are
included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A
subset of elements within
selected clusters are
randomly selected for
inclusion in the sample.

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CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
• Freq cf cluster • XVI 3500 52500 17
• I 2000 2000 1 • XVII 4000 56500 18,19
• II 3000 5000 2 • XVIII 4500 61000 20
• III 1500 6500 • XIX 4000 65000 21,22
• IV 4000 10500 3 • XX 4000 69000 23
• V 5000 15500 4, 5
• • XXI 2000 71000 24
VI 2500 18000 6
• VII 2000 20000 7 • XXII 2000 73000
• VIII 3000 23000 8 • XXIII 3000 76000 25
• IX 3500 26500 9 • XXIV 3000 79000 26
• X 4500 31000 10 • XXV 5000 84000 27,28
• XI 4000 35000 11, 12 • XXVI 2000 86000 29
• XII 4000 39000 13 • XXVII 1000 87000
• XIII 3500 44000 14,15 • XXVIII 1000 88000
• XIV 2000 46000 • XXIX 1000 89000 30
• XV 3000 49000 16
• XXX 1000 90000
• 90000/30 = 3000 sampling interval

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 Systematic Sampling 
It is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part
of the sample. For example, you can choose every 5th
person to be in the sample. Systematic sampling is an
extended implementation of the same old probability
technique in which each member of the group is selected at
regular periods to form a sample. There’s an equal
opportunity for every member of a population to be
selected using this sampling technique.
Example
All employees of the company
are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point:
number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the
list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so
on), and you end up with a sample
of 100 people.

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Difference Between Strata and Clusters

Although strata and clusters are both non-

overlapping subsets of the population, they differ
in several ways.
All strata are represented in the sample; but only
a subset of clusters are in the sample.
With stratified sampling, the best survey results
occur when elements within strata are internally
homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the
best results occur when elements within clusters
are internally heterogeneous

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of
units are embedded one in the other.

 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

 Then third stage units will be houses.

 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are
surveyed.

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MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..
 This technique, is essentially the process of taking random
samples of preceding random samples.
 Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves
more of the problems inherent to random sampling.
 An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
 Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of
all members of the population not exists and is inappropriate.
 Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all
selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large, and
perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with traditional cluster
sampling.

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MULTI PHASE SAMPLING
 Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from
subsample.

 In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I

 X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II
 Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III

 Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more

purposeful

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Types of Non-probability Sampling
Four main techniques used for a non-probability sample:

Convenience

Judgemental

Snowball

Quota
 Convenience Sampling
It is a non-probability sampling technique used to create
sample as per ease of access, readiness to be a part of the
sample, availability at a given time slot or any other practical
specifications of a particular element. 
Convenience sampling involves selecting haphazardly those
cases that are easiest to obtain for your sample, such as the
person interviewed at random in a shopping center for a
television program.
Example
You are researching opinions about student support
services in your university, so after each of your
classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a
survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather
data, but as you only surveyed students taking the
same classes as you at the same level, the sample is
not representative of all the students at your
university.

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Judgmental Sampling
In the judgmental sampling, also called purposive
sampling, the sample members are chosen only on the
basis of the researcher’s knowledge and judgment.
The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study. This is
used primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being
researched
Example
You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your university, so
you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied
range of data on their experiences with student
services.

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 Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling method is purely based on referrals and
that is how a researcher is able to generate a sample.
Therefore this method is also called the chain-referral
sampling method.
This sampling technique can go on and on, just like a
snowball increasing in size (in this case the sample size) till
the time a researcher has enough data to analyze, to draw
conclusive results that can help an organization make
informed decisions.
Example
You are researching experiences of homelessness in
your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people
in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You
meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.

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 Quota Sampling
Selection of members in this sampling technique happens on
basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed
on basis of specific attributes, the created sample will have the
same attributes that are found in the total population. It is an
extremely quick method of collecting samples.
Quota sampling is therefore a type of stratified sample in which
selection of cases within strata is entirely non-random.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

 Use results that are easy to get

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Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is
mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing
participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves
(e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as

some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.

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Example

You send out the survey to all students at your

university and a lot of students decide to complete it.
This can certainly give you some insight into the topic,
but the people who responded are more likely to be
those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their
opinions are representative of all students.

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 PANEL SAMPLING
 Method of first selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking that group for the same
information again several times over a period of time.
 Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at
two or more time points; each period of data collection called a
"wave".
 This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or nation-
wide studies in order to gauge changes in the population with
regard to any number of variables from chronic illness to job
stress to weekly food expenditures.
 Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about
within-person health changes due to age or help explain changes in
continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
 There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel
sample data, including growth curves.

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Questions???

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