PAKISTAN STUDIES

Lecture 1
 I N D U S VA L L E Y C I V I L I Z AT I O N

• Palaeolithic man roamed the Indian subcontinent, but the first great civilization to flourish there developed
along the banks of Indus River in the third and second millennia B.C.

• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are the remains of two large cities which were the focal points of an archaic
culture extending for 1000 miles along the Indus Valley.

• The uniformity of the architecture and artefacts suggests the existence of a centralized state comparable to
Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations
 DECLINE OF MOHENJO-DARO AND
HARAPPA CULTURE

• There are various causes of the decline of Harappa culture, such as:

The usual massive inundations of the Indus and its tributaries which undermined the agricultural
economy.

The death blow at the hands of the invading Aryan tribes during the second millennium B.C.
o Tribes were armed with good quality weapons while the Mohenjo-Daro defenders had inferior
quality weapons.
o Food supply of this culture was dependant on vulnerable system of irrigation while the invaders
were mobile with the seminomadic techniques such as cows and other animals that could move
along the tribe.
 ARYAN TRIBE AND THE CASTE SYSTEM

• The Aryan tribal solidarity was based on clan kinship standards- priests, warriors, artisans and slaves- which
is the structure of the classical Indian “caste” system.

• The Aryans worshiped a well-defined pantheon of powerful deities- the sky, earth, rain storm and lightening.

• The growth of the priestly power and status in the Aryan society was an important element in the extension of
the Aryan political power- they slowly marched from the Indus Valley down the western portion of the
Ganges and its tributaries.
 ARYAN TRIBE AND THE CASTE SYSTEM

• The diffusion of the Aryan culture brought the importance and the development of the caste system in the
traditional Indian society.
• They battled their way down from the northwest through the Ganges Valley, and conquered and enslaved
local people mostly who were darker and smaller than them.

• This principle became the basis for a further development into four traditional Vernas (Caste levels) with
the distinction based on occupation:

• Brahman (priest)
• Kshatriya (warrior)
• Vaishya (merchant)
• Shudra (cultivator)
 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

• The latter half of the first millennium B.C. is very important for India in the light of history.
• By the sixth century B.C. there emerged many new religious and philosophical schools which taught new
religious practices by Buddha and Mahvaria (founder of Buddhism and Jainism)- such as assuming new
physical form and status in each successive life depending on the actions in the previous life, the law of
karma.
• These new views were shared with important differences with the Aryan religious views- their messages of
salvation were preached openly without regard for caste.
• This period reflects the struggle of control between the leaders of Aryan society and the new religious elite
with the teaching of Buddha and Mahavira (the founder of Jainism).
• The arrival of Buddhism and Jainism led to the emergence of Mauryan state (a centralized bureaucratic
empire).
 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

• One of the Mauryan king, Asoka, whose rule began about 270 B.C. was converted to Buddhism after his
conquest of the subcontinent.

• The ideology through which Asoka hoped to unify his empire was comprised of laws Buddhism, it
bypassed the caste criteria and outlined economically efficient virtues which might also be expected to
facilitate political integration.

• However after his death the empire was split into a number of parts: both barbarians and Greeks invaded
the northwest and new dynasties dominated the Ganges Valley and the Deccan in the south.
 REBIRTH OF ARYAN CULTURE- GUPTA EMPIRE

• The events in the forth century A.D. led to the emergence of a new political power- the Gupta empire.
• In 320 A.D. Chandragupta 1 ascended the throne to conquer the whole subcontinent and to restore and
bring new fruition the sacred values of the Aryan tribe.
• The arts and science reached new heights and standard of perfection was set which endured for centuries.
• The Gupta leaders succeeded for a long time bringing political stability and new cultural unity to the
troubled land.
• However, incursions of the new and ferocious foreign invader who were already active in Europe and
Middle East led to the demise of the Gupta Empire- the Huns.
• By the end of the fifth century, Hun rule was spreading rapidly and the empire was steadily torn apart.
 E VO LU T I O N A N D G R O W T H O F M U S L I M S O C I ETY I N
T H E S U B - C O N T I N EN T
(700-1526)

• In the beginning of the 8th century A.D., Islam entered in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent
• The roots of Islam in the subcontinent extend back to the campaigns of conquest by Arabs after the birth
of their religion.
• Its real impact began when Muslim rulers from Central Asia invaded the subcontinent in the 11 th century
through Sindh.
• The subcontinent was accustomed to invasions but unlike the Persians, Iranians or Greeks, the Muslims
introduced a strong central government and many other social innovations-left a legacy of incomparable
art, architecture, scientific knowledge and many other contributions to the world heritage.
• But in the process, it has created a schism with the Hindu majority of the subcontinent which defines the
relations between India and Pakistan to this day.
 I S L A M S F I R S T WAV E

• Islam was brought forth by Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.S) in the Arabian Peninsula in 570-632 A.D.
• Soon after his death, the Arab armies set off on campaigns to conquer and spread the message of Islam.
• When Islam arrived to what is now Pakistan, the Huns and other warfare had left the area subcontinent
unstable and unsafe.
• Between 637 and 643, during the reign of Caliph Hazrat Umar (R.A.) the Arabs conquered Kamran
(Iranian province that included south of Baluchistan) however this was under loose control and the
inhabitants revolted after a few years.
• In 660 under the Caliph of Hazrat Ali (R.A) Haris ibn Marah was sent to conquer Makran, Baluchistan
and Sindh but he was killed in a revolt and lost all Islamic control.
 THE CAMPAIGNS OF MUHAMMAD BIN QASIM

• In 710, when Hajjaj bin Yousuf was the governor of the Islamic empires, an Arab ship was seized in
Sindh and Muhammad bin Qasim was sent to launch a campaign against all Sindh.
• His attack force included 6000 Syrian horse, 6000 troops on camels, 3000 Bactrian camels to carry
supplies, ships with 5 large catapults and a network of couriers was organized for battlefield
communications.
• The coastal strip of Makran was the first region of Sindh to attack and fall.
• Qasim set out for Debal at the Indus River delta and dug trenches and awaited orders for attack.
• Qasim made the holy flag of the city the target, knocked it down and conquered the town.
• Qasim issued the decree: “All human beings are created by ALLAH and are equal in His eyes. He is
one and without a peer. In my religion only those who are kind to fellow human beings are worthy of
respect. Cruelty and oppression are prohibited by law. We fight only those who are unjust and are
enemies of the truth” (Hussain, 1997, 103)
 THE CAMPAIGNS OF MUHAMMAD BIN QASIM

• The Muslims had soon won over the populace.

• Next Qasim marched to Neronkut then Sehwan the Brahmanabad conquering all, where Sehwan became
the centre of Islamic power in Sindh.

• During the campaign Yousuf and Caliph Walid died.

• The new Caliph Sulaiman ceded power against Yousuf’s family and Qasim was recalled and executed
before further advances were made.
• Nonetheless, Sindh became Islam's path (door of Islam) to the subcontinent.
 SINDH AFTER MUHAMMAD BIN QASIM

• Despite the halt in advance of the Arab forces, for the next 200 Sindh remained part of the Islamic
Empire under at least 37 Arab governors.

• Islam spread while Hindus and Buddhists practiced their faith.

• Mosques were constructed with temples and shrines, jizya and zakat was collected, disputes between
Muslims were settled by Muslim judges while disputes between Hindus or Buddhists were settled by
Brahman priests.

• Over time Islamic and Sindh customs intertwined to create a new culture, so much that Sindh
became the first language into which the Quran was translated.
 I S L A M S S E C O N D WAV E :
T H E G H A Z N AV I D S

• Mahmud of Ghazni in the start of 11th century attacked and conquered Multan and its Hindi allies.

• He also continued his battles against the Hindu Shahi dynasty which gradually lost ground from 1000 to
1026. In 1001 he conquered Peshawar and it became the centre of the empire.

• During the Ghaznavid period the Muslim scholars and missionaries travelled throughout the kingdom
spreading the message of Islam- from Lahore to the Salt Range to others in Punjab.
 THE DELHI SULTANATE (1206-1526)

• The Delhi Sultanate established Islamic rule throughout the subcontinent and maintained for more
than three centuries.

• About 1500 independent Muslim kingdoms had arisen in Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Sindh and
Khandesh in central India.
• Sufism also made it way during this era.

• With the death of the last ruler, the Delhi Sultanate came to an end and it gave way to a kingdom
that would be among the grandest the world had seen: Mughal Empire.
• The Mughal era is known as the period of Muslim architecture, literature, religious reformists.
 EFFECTS OF ISLAM ON THE SUBCONTINENT

• Islam completely changed the living standard, style and thinking of the people in the subcontinent.

• Economic and social development boosted in the subcontinent and so did inter-religious harmony as well.

• Turks introduced Persian language which intermingled with Arabic and gave birth to many languages
including Urdu.

• Though the Muslim society experienced ups and downs throughout history, yet it yielded positive effects
on the minds of people at large in Indo-Pak subcontinent.
PAKISTAN STUDIES

Lecture 2
Muhammad Ahmed Nazif
 IDEOLOGY OF SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AND
THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT

• The Aligarh Movement marks a watershed in the history of modern India.

• It was this movement which under the leadership of Sir Syed that brought about significant changes
in social, economic and political lives of the Muslims in India that left tremendous impact on the
overall society and polity of India.

• The Aligarh movement guided the Muslims to recapture their lost glory in the British Indian rule.
 THE MUSLIMS POLITICAL STRUGGLE

• The fall of the Mughal Empire started after the death of Aurangazeb in 1707.

• The defeat of Siraj-ud-Daula at the battle of Plassey in 1757 completely weakened the Muslim
political power.

• The last concerted effort was made in the First war of Independence which took place in 1857.

• Its failure resulted in the emergence of the British as the ruling power in this country.
 THE MUSLIMS POLITICLAL STRUGGLE

• After the First War of Independence in 1857, direct British rule was imposed over India changing the
whole structure of India.

• The Muslims were the worst sufferers because they were the rulers and were not willing to accept the
supremacy of the British.

• The British with the help of the Hindu took actions to crush the Muslims completely- their economic
condition was denied , their lands were confiscated they lost their jobs, they lost advantage of their
language, literature and culture.
 THE MUSLIMS POLITCAL STRUGGLE

• The Muslims were looking for ways and opportunities to the old position in their society.

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan pulled the Muslims out of this despair.

• With their vigorous support Sir Syed started the Aligarh Movement.

• He launched the Aligarh movement which guided the Muslims to get stability back in their social,
economic, educational and political aspects of life.
 L E G I S L AT I V E A C T, 1 8 6 1

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan pointed out weakness in the government.

• The first ever constitutional structure was formulated in 1861- the Legislative Councils Act.

• According to this Act, Indian people were included In the Governors General Council for the first
time but were not allowed to criticise or question the running affairs of the council.

• Sir Syed was nominated as the member of the Legislative Act of 1861.
 SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AND THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT

• Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to create friendly atmosphere for the two communities.

• He thus started the Aligarh Movement.

• The purpose of his movement were:

• To minimize all grounds of animosity which the Muslims were likely to harbour against the British
• To remove all doubts from the British mind that Muslims were not loyal
 SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AND THE ALIGARH
MOVEMENT

• Sir Syeds major strategy was urging the Muslims to acquire education with emphasis on learning English
language and science.

• Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh was established in 1875.

• Sir Syeds Aligarh movement played as significant role to bring about an intellectual revolution among
Indian Muslims.
 I N D I A N C O U N C I L S A C T, 1 8 9 2

• Indian National Congress was formed in 1885.

• It was formed to safeguard the interest of the Indian people but with time it turned into a pure Hindu
body working to safeguard the interests of Hindus and eliminating the Muslims form the society.

• Sir Syed criticised the demands of the Congress.

• In 1892 the government introduced the Indian Councils Act.

 I N D I A N C O U N C I L S A C T, 1 8 9 2

• The salient provision of the Act were as follows:

• 1) the number of the non-official members in the Council were increased

• 2) The members of the Legislative Councils were given the right to put up questions and discuss the
budget
• 3) the local bodies were given right to send their elected members to the Legislative Councils

• The Act of 1892 could not fully safeguard the interests of the Muslims and the Muslim
leaders now rightly felt for a separate electorate to protect the Muslims interests.
 HINDU- URDU CONTROVERSY

• Urdu was nearly 300 years old , introduced in the subcontinent in 1825 as an official language of the
Muslims.

• Urdu was a symbol of unity and culture of the Muslims.

• The Hindu-Urdu controversy began in 1867 when Hindus demanded the replacement of Urdu by Hindu
as an official language in public offices and courts.
 HINDU- URDU CONTROVERSY

• Sir Syed was disappointed to see the Hindus behaving in such a manner and was now convinced that
the Hindus would never be friendly with the Muslims.
• On this occasion he said:
”I am convinced that Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation as their religion and way of life
is quite distinct from each other.”
• He decide to adopt measure to protect Urdu- he established Central Association in Allahabad for the
protection of Urdu.
• In 1871 George Cambell, Lt Governor of Bengal ordered that Urdu be completely eliminated from
syllabus books.
• In 1900 Governor Anthony MacDonald also ordered that Hindi should be used in courts, public offices
and educational institutions as an official language.
 HINDU- URDU CONTROVERSY

• Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk criticised the governments demands.

• The students of Aligarh college also protested against the elimination of Urdu from their syllabus
books.

• However, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk did not stop his endeavours for the protection of Urdu- he wrote
several books on Urdu literature.
 H I N DU - U R D U C O N T R O VE R S Y

• The elimination of Urdu as an official language had he impacts on the political scene of the subcontinent
as it meant the total extermination of Muslims as a nation.

• This created awareness amongst the Muslims who realized the hatred of the Hindus and British towards
the Muslims and their culture.

• The anti-Urdu stance strengthened the belief in the Two-Nation concept by the Muslims which later on
came to be the main factor for the struggle of a separate homeland.
“Acquisition of knowledge of science and technology is the only solution for the problems of
Muslims.”

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan