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In 1977, Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University, did
something very unusual.

Pepperberg was interested in learning if animals could think, and the best
way to do this, she reasoned, was to talk to them. To test her theory, she
bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to
reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to
communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world,”
she explains.

When Pepperberg began her research with Alex, very few scientists
acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. The general belief
was that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the
ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that
animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? “That’s why I started my
studies with Alex,” Pepperberg says.

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˄ Kanzi, a bonobo, understood the meaning of over 150 symbols.
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Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a
good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness,
understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little,
researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep
and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees—who are
genetically similar to humans—use a variety of primitive tools for
eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit1
to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity2 are known to
amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may
even exhibit basic emotions by changing color.

1 If you spit, you force liquid out of your mouth.

2 An animal in captivity lives in a zoo, a cage, or other enclosed place.

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Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his
voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors,
shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill,
in recent years, cognitive scientists3 have revealed that it’s an extremely
difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other
person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same
position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because
Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him
questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count,
as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had
an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts
of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals,
particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes
(and humans), live a long time in complex societies.

3 A cognitive scientist studies the mind and its mental process.

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˄ Alex, an African grey parrot, had a large vocabulary and was able to answer
questions about his understanding of the world.

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And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships
within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human
language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is
treat us as their flock,”4 explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce
and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language

ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and
remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an
extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at
least 15 people by name, and can link photographs with the real objects
they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of
animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability
to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves.
Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities,
created music, or made a computer. In fact, a number of critics dismiss
animals’ ability to use tools or understand human language. They believe
animals are just simulating human behavior.
4 A flock of birds is a group of birds.

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Yet, many researchers say that creativity and language in animals, like
other forms of intelligence, have evolved. “People were surprised to
discover that chimpanzees make tools,” says Alex Kacelnik, an animal
researcher at Oxford University. “But people also thought, ‘Well, they
share our ancestry—of course they’re smart.’ Now we’re finding these
kinds of behaviors in some species of birds. But we don’t have a recently
shared ancestry with birds. It means,” Kacelnik continues, “that evolution
can invent similar forms of advanced intelligence more than once—that
it’s not something reserved only for primates or mammals.”

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Reading Comprehension

Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer for each question.

Gist 1. What is this reading mainly about?

a. ways of teaching animals to become more intelligent
b. research that shows intelligence is not limited to humans
c. how animals can communicate with humans
d. how human and animal intelligence are different
Detail 2. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage?
a. how an octopus displays basic emotions
b. ways in which elephants communicate with each other
c. how birds and chimps evolved tool-making abilities
d. the language ability of dogs
Detail 3. What could Alex do that showed self-awareness?
a. count
b. learn vocabulary
c. copy human sounds
d. understand the concept of zero

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Reference 4. In line 39, It refers to _____.
a. counting
b. talking
c. imitating
d. asking questions
Detail 5. What do parrots and primates have in common?
a. They both live a long time in complex societies.
b. They both learn to use tools while in captivity.
c. They both teach new human words to their young.
d. Neither likes to participate in or be part of a group.
Vocabulary 6. In line 67, the word link could be replaced with _____.
a. match
b. take
c. count
d. view
Inference 7. Which statement would Alex Kacelnik probably agree with?
a. Only humans and primates are capable of thought.
b. Birds share a common ancestry with humans.
c. Some birds are more intelligent than humans.
d. We can find intelligence in species we don’t normally
consider intelligent.

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 Critical Thinking

Evaluating: Do you think all of the animals discussed in the reading can be
called “intelligent”? Which would you say is the most intelligent? Why?

Discussion: Can you think of other examples of animal intelligence that are
not mentioned in the reading?

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Reading Skill

Identifying Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion is a feature of cohesive writing. Writers often use different

words to avoid repetition and to add variety to a text. One way to achieve this
is to use synonyms. Sometimes, instead of two words being exact synonyms,
one word may be a more specific (or a more general) part of, or an example
of, another word. Look at the following examples:

The aroma in the kitchen got my attention. The smell of cookies took me
back to my childhood. (Here, aroma and smell refer to the same thing.)

I bought flour, sugar, and cocoa. After I got the ingredients home,
I realized I had no vanilla. (Here, flour, sugar, cocoa, and vanilla are
specific examples of ingredients.)

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A. Classification. These words are from the reading passage on page
165–167. Find pairs of synonyms and write them below.

ability action basic behavior

communicate create elementary exhibit
imitate invent reason reproduce
show skill talk think

1. ____________ = ____________
2. ____________ = ____________
3. ____________ = ____________
4. ____________ = ____________
5. ____________ = ____________
6. ____________ = ____________
7. ____________ = ____________
8. ____________ = ____________
B. Analyzing. In each extract below, circle the general term once and
double-underline any specific part or examples of the word.

1. . . . researchers have documented these abilities in other species.

Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. (lines 18–20)
2. . . . particularly primates such as humans and apes. (lines 50–51)
3. . . . humans remain the creative species. (line 73)
4. . . . researchers say that creativity and language in animals, like other
forms of intelligence, have evolved. (lines 79–81)

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Vocabulary Practice
A. Completion. Complete the paragraph with words from the box. Two words
are extra.
abstract acknowledging dismiss extraordinarily
mastered revealed primitive pronounce
Research in the Fongoli region of Senegal has 1. _______________ that
chimpanzees seem to have 2. _______________ the art of basic tool-making.
Furthermore, a chimp was observed sharpening a stick with her teeth before using
it as a(n) 3. _______________ tool for killing a bush baby.1

Although few people completely 4. _______________ the findings, some

researchers question their significance. Primatologist Craig Stanford, for example,
while 5. _______________ that the behavior is fascinating, finds that the research
findings are only important enough to be “. . . a short note in a journal.” However,
researcher Jill Pruetz claims that the discovery is remarkable, as it shows that
chimp behavior can be 6. _______________ humanlike.

˂ A bush baby is a small animal with large

1

eyes that lives in Africa.

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B. Definitions. Complete the sentences with words from the box. Two words are extra.

abstract acknowledge dismiss extraordinary

humble master pronounce simulate

1. To _______________ something means to become skilled in the use of it.

2. If you _______________ an action or a feeling, you copy it or pretend to do
it.
3. To _______________ a word means to say it using particular sounds.
4. A(n) _______________ person is not proud, and does not believe he or she
is better than other people.
5. If you _______________ a fact or situation, you accept or admit that it is
true.
6. A(n) _______________ idea or way of thinking is based on general ideas
rather than on real things and events.
Thesaurus master Also look up: (n.) owner, artist, expert,
professional; (v.) learn, study, understand

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