CE 023

Fluid Mechanics
Introduction Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Dynamics

Fluid Mechanics- is a study of the behavior of fluids that are either at rest or in motion.
Fluid Statics- considers the forces acting on a fluid at rest
Fluid Kinematics- is the study of the geometry of fluid motion.
Fluid Dynamics- considers the forces that cause acceleration of a fluid.
Civil Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design drainage channels, water networks, sewer systems, and water-
resisting structures such as dams and levees.
Mechanical Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design pumps, compressors, turbines, process control systems,
heating and air conditioning equipment, and to design wind turbines and solar heating devices.
Chemical and Petroleum Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design equipment used for filtering, pumping, and
mixing fluids.
Electronics and Computer Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design switches, screen displays, and data storage
equipment
Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineers- use fluid mechanics principles to study flight, and to design propulsion
systems.
Historical Development
Roman Empire- historical records show that through the process of trial and error, early societies, such as the
Roman Empire, used fluid mechanics in the construction of their irrigation and water supply systems.
Archimedes- he discovered the principle of buoyancy in the middle of the 3rd century B.C..
Leonardo Da Vinci- developed principles for the design of canal locks and other devices used for water
transport in 15th century.
Evangelista Torricelli- designed the barometer during the 16th and 17th century.
Blaise Pascal- formulated the law of static pressure during the 16th and 17th century.
Isaac Newton- developed his law of viscosity to describe the nature of fluid resistance to flow during the 16th
and 17th century.
Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli- pioneered the field of hydrodynamics in 1700s
Gustave Coriolis- developed water turbines.
Gotthilf Hagen and Jean Poiseuille- studied the resistance to water flowing through pipes.
Ludwig Prandtl- introduced the concept of the boundary layer while studying aerodynamics in the early 20th
century.
System of Units
Definitions
Length- is used to locate the position of a point in space and thereby describe the
size(geometry) of a physical system.
Time- is conceived as a succession of events.
Mass- is a measure of a quantity of matter that is used to compare the action of one Kinetic Units
body with that of another.  1
Force- is considered as the action(push or pull) of one body on another. It is  𝑃
characterized by its point of application, its magnitude, and its direction(sense).  𝜃
t ion
c
o fA
e
Temperature- a measurement that indicates how hot or cold something is. Lin
System of Units
International
  System of Units or SI [French] Units-an absolute system of units U.S. Customary System of Units (FPS)- a gravitational system of units which is
that is independent of measurement location (modern version of metric dependent of measurement location.
system.)

Time:
  second - originally chosen to represent of the mean solar day, now
defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two levels of the fundamental state
of the cesium-133 atom.
Time:
  second - originally chosen to represent of the mean solar day, now
defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two levels of the fundamental state
of the cesium-133 atom.

Length:
  meter - originally defined as of the distance from the equator to either Length: foot - defined as 0.3048 of a meter
pole, now defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light
 
corresponding to a certain transition in an atom of krypton-86.

Mass:
  kilogram - approximately equal to the mass of of water, defined as the
mass of a platinum-iridium standard kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sèvres, near Paris, France.
Mass:
  slug - defined as the mass which receives an acceleration of one foot
per second per second when a force of one pound is applied to it

Force:
  Newton - a derived unit of force from Newton’s Second Law of Motion Force:
  pound - defined as the weight of a platinum standard, called the
which is equal to the force required to give one kilogram of mass an acceleration standard pound, which is kept at the National Institute of Standards and
of one meter per second per second Technology outside Washington placed at sea level at a latitude of (standard
location), the mass of which is 0.453 592 43
Temperature:
  Kelvin - is the absolute temperature measured from a point Temperature:
  Rankine - is the absolute temperature measured from a point
where the molecules of a substance have so called “zero energy” identified by where the molecules of a substance have so called “zero energy”.
Lord Kelvin. Basic Unit Derived Unit
Conversion of Units
International System of Units (SI) U.S. Customary System of Units (FPS)
1
  minute = 60 second
Time:
  second Time: second
  1
  hour = 60 minute
1
  foot = 12 inch
Length:
  meter Length:
  foot 1
  mile = 5280 feet

Mass: kilogram 1
  short ton = 2000 pound
  Mass:
  slug
1
  long ton = 2240 pound
Force: Newton 1
  kilopound = 1000 pound
  Force:
  pound

1000 1
 ?
     (kilo)  
60𝑚𝑖𝑛    60
𝑠
0.001
     (milli)    1 h    
  𝑥 1 h  𝑥1 𝑚𝑖𝑛   𝑠
=  3600
1000
  ?
12
1 𝑥 10
𝑁
1000
 
 
 𝑇𝑁𝑥 1 𝑇𝑁  𝑥  1 𝑁
𝑘𝑁
3 =  1 𝑥   𝑘𝑁
10 12
 1 𝑥 10
  𝑇  𝐾 =𝑇 ° 𝐶 +273.15   7
 
[ 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎 ] Time:  1 𝑠=1 𝑠 [ 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎 ]
2 2 Length: 0.3048
  𝑚=1 𝑓𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 Mass: 1
1  𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔=1𝑙𝑏 ⋅ =4.448 𝑁 𝑥 =14.59 𝑘𝑔   4.59 𝑘𝑔=1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔   =0.453 592 43 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.807
1𝑙𝑏
𝑚
= 4.44
𝑓𝑡 0.3048 𝑚 Force: 4  .448 𝑁 =1 𝑙𝑏 𝑠
2

 
Temperature:
Basic Unit Derived Unit
Sample Problems:
 1. A rocket has a mass of slugs on earth. Specify (a) its mass in SI units and (b) its weight in SI units. If the
rocket is on the moon, where the acceleration due to gravity is , determine (c) its weight in SI units and (d) its
mass in SI units.
Solution
:a. Recall: 1
  4.59 𝑘𝑔=1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 Other solution:
 𝑥
14.59
  𝑘𝑔   𝑓𝑡
250
  𝑥 103 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠   ¿3.6475
  𝑥 106 𝑘𝑔  250 𝑥 10 3   𝑥5.30
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 ¿
2    1.325 𝑥 10
6
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑠
b. Recall:  [𝑊 =𝑚𝑔 ] Recall: 4  .448 𝑁 =1 𝑙𝑏
𝑚   4 .448 𝑁
 3.6475 𝑥 10  𝑘𝑔6  
𝑥9.81 𝑠2   ¿ 35.782 𝑥 10 𝑁
6  1.325 𝑥 10 𝑥 6
  𝑙𝑏 1 𝑙𝑏   ¿ 5.892 𝑥 106 𝑁

c. Recall:  [𝑊 =𝑚𝑔 ] Other solution:

  𝑓𝑡   0.3048 𝑚 6  𝑊  𝑊 𝐸 𝑊 𝑚
 3.6475 𝑥 106  𝑘𝑔𝑥5.30
𝑠
2
  𝑥
1 𝑓𝑡
  ¿5.892
  𝑥 10 𝑁 =𝑚
[ 𝑔𝐸
=
]
𝑔𝑚
𝑊
  𝑚 =5.892 𝑥 10 6
𝑁
𝑔
Recall: 0.3048 𝑚=1 𝑓𝑡
 
6  
6
35.7 8 2 𝑥 10 𝑁   𝑊𝑚
d. 𝑚
  𝐸 =𝑚 𝑚 =3.6475 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔 =
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
3 2.2 2 5.30 2
𝑠 𝑠
Sample Problems:
2. Convert the following temperatures: (a) 20 °C to degrees Fahrenheit, (b) 500 K to degrees Celsius, (c) 125 °F
to degrees Rankine, (d) 215 °F to degrees Celsius.
Solution
:a. Recall:   c. Recall: [  𝑇 ° 𝑅 =𝑇 ° 𝐹 +459.67 ]

5
𝑇  ° 𝑅 =1 25 ° 𝐹 +459.67
 
20 ° 𝐶= ( 𝑇 ° 𝐹 − 32 )  𝑇 ° 𝑅 =5 84.67 ° 𝑅
9
 𝑇 ° 𝐹 =68 ° 𝐹
b. Recall: [  𝑇 𝐾 =𝑇 ° 𝐶 + 273.15 ] d. Recall:  
500
  𝐾=𝑇 ° 𝐶 +273.15
 𝑇 ° 𝐶 =226.85 ℃   5
𝑇 ° 𝐶 = ( 215° 𝐹 −32 )
9
𝑇
  ° 𝐶 =101.67 ° 𝐶
Recall:
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion- formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the latter part of the 17th Century
First Law (Law of Inertia). A particle originally at
rest, or moving in a straight line with constant
velocity, tends to remain in this state provided the
particle is not subjected to an unbalanced force
Second Law (Law of Acceleration). A particle acted
upon by an unbalanced force F experiences an
 𝑎  𝑚 acceleration a that has the same direction as the
 𝐹 ¿ 𝑚𝑎
force and a magnitude that is directly proportional
to the force. If F is applied to a particle of mass m,
this law may be expressed mathematically as F=ma
Third Law (Law of Action-Reaction). The mutual forces of  𝐹  𝐹
action and reaction between two particles are equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction, and has collinear line of
action.
Recall:  𝑚 1 =𝑚
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction- states that two
particles are mutually attracted to each other with forces equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction, stated mathematically, 𝑊
 
𝑑  =6,371 𝑘𝑚
  𝑚1 𝑚 2
𝐹 =𝐺 2
𝑑
 where force of gravitation between the two particles
universal constant of gravitation equal to   2=5.972 𝑥 1024 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
mass of each of the two particles
distance between the two particles

 𝑚 2  𝐹
  𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺
  𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
 𝐹 [
 𝑚 1
  𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑑 2 ] 𝑅2
=𝑔=9.81
𝑠2[32.2
𝑠2 ]
 𝑑 𝑊=
𝑅 2
(𝑚) 𝑊
  =𝑚𝑔
Sample Problems:
3. Determine the gravitational force acting between two spheres that are touching each other. The mass of each
sphere is 200 kg and the radius is 300 mm.
Solution
:
Recall:   𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑚 1 𝑚 2
[ 𝑑
2 ]
3
𝑚
  1=200 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
  2=200 𝑘𝑔   𝑚 ( 200 𝑘𝑔 ) ( 200 𝑘𝑔 )

𝑟=0.3
  𝑚 𝑟=0.3
  𝑚
(
𝐹 = 66.73 𝑥 10
−12

𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠 )
2
( 0.6 𝑚 )2

𝑑  =0.6 𝑚  𝐹=7.41 𝑥 10−6 𝑁

Definition of Fluid
Fluids- are substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and change their relative position
without a separation of the mass, they offer practically no resistance to change of form, they readily conform to
the shape of the solid body with which they come in contact.
Two Division of Fluid
Liquid- composed of molecules that are more spread out than those in a solid, their
intermolecular forces are weaker, so liquids do not hold their shape, instead, they flow and
take the shape of their container. It has a free surface and practically incompressible

Gas- a substance that fills the entire volume of its container, and are composed of molecules
that are much farther apart than those of a liquid, as a result, the molecules of a gas are free to
travel away from one another. It has no free surface and is compressible.

Recall:
Solid- maintains a definite shape and volume
because the molecules or atoms of a solid are
densely packed and are held tightly together.
Fluid Properties
 Density ()- or mass density, refers to the mass of the fluid that is contained in a unit of volume;

  ( 𝑇 ℃ − 4 )2
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =1000 −
180
Fluid Properties
 Specific Weight ()- or unit weight, is the weight of a fluid per unit volume;
Recall:
[𝐹=𝑚𝑎]
 
𝑊
  =𝑚(g)
  𝑚𝑔
𝛾=
𝑉
  𝜌= 𝑚
[ 𝑉 ]
 𝛾 = 𝜌 𝑔
Fluid Properties
 Specific Volume ()- is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid;
Recall:
  𝜌= 𝑚   (1) (1) 1
[ 𝑉 𝜌=] 𝑉
 
𝑉=
𝜌
 
𝑉 𝑠=
𝜌
 Specific Gravity ()- is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of its density or specific weight to
that of some other substance that is taken as a “standard”;

 Solids and liquids are referred to water at as standard, while gases are often referred to air free of carbon
dioxide or hydrogen at , and a pressure of 1 atm (atmosphere)= 14.7 psi= 101.3 kPa= 29.9 in. Hg= 760 mm
Hg

Fluid Specific Gravity

Freshwater 1.00
Seawater 1.03
Oil 0.80
Mercury 13.6
Sample Problems:
 4. Mercury has a specific weight of when the temperature is 20 °C. Determine its density and specific gravity at
this temperature.
Solution
: Recall: [ 𝛾 =𝜌 𝑔 ]
  𝑁 3 𝑚  Solids and liquids are referred to water at as standard,
133 𝑥 10 3 = 𝜌 (9.81 2 ) while gases are often referred to air free of carbon dioxide
𝑚 𝑠
or hydrogen at , and a pressure of 1 atm (atmosphere)=
  𝑘𝑔 14.7 psi= 101.3 kPa= 29.9 in. Hg= 760 mm Hg
𝜌 =13,557.59 3
𝑚
𝜌𝑓 𝛾𝑓
Recall:
[
 
𝑆𝑓 = =
𝜌𝑠 𝛾 𝑠 ]
  𝑘𝑁
133
𝑚3
𝑆𝑓 =
𝑘𝑁
9.81
𝑚3
 𝑆 𝑓 =1 3.56
Sample Problems:
 5. The fuel for a jet engine has a density of . If the total volume of fuel tanks A is 50 ft 3, determine the weight of
the fuel when the tanks are completely full.
Solution
:
  𝜌= 𝑚
Recall: [ 𝑉 ] Recall:  [𝑊 =𝑚𝑔 ]
  𝑓𝑡
 
1.32
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑓𝑡
3
=
𝑚
50 𝑓𝑡
3
𝑊 =66 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 32.2
( 𝑠
2 )
 𝑊 = 2125.2 𝑙𝑏
 𝑚= 66 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
 Fluid Properties
 Viscosity ()- is that property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing stress. A
perfect fluid would have no viscosity. The viscosity of liquids  decreases with increasing temperature, whereas
𝑣
the viscosity of gases increases with it.  𝐹
  𝑑𝛿  𝑦   𝑣
tan 𝑑 𝛼= =𝑑 𝛼
Recall: 𝑑𝑦  𝑣 1
 [ 𝑆=𝑣𝑡 ] 𝑑
  𝛿=𝑑𝑣 (𝑑𝑡)  𝑦  𝑣 2
𝑑𝑣 (𝑑𝑡 )    𝑣 3
=𝑑  𝑑𝑣
𝛼  =𝑑 𝛼  
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
 𝑣
Velocity gradient
Shear strain rate  𝑣 𝑑  𝛿  Newton’s Law of Viscosity-
 𝐹 states that the shear stress in
 𝑦 a fluid is directly
proportional to the shear
𝑑  𝛼  𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 strain rate or velocity
gradient, proposed by Isaac
Newton in the late 17th
century;
 Fluid Properties
 Viscosity ()- is that property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing stress. A
perfect fluid would have no viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, whereas
the viscosity of gases increases with it.
  𝑑𝛿
tan 𝑑 𝛼= =𝑑 𝛼
Recall: 𝑑𝑦  - absolute or dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity, is the constant of
 [ 𝑆=𝑣𝑡 ] 𝑑
  𝛿=𝑑𝑣 (𝑑𝑡) proportionality that measures the resistance to fluid movement;
𝑑𝑣 (𝑑𝑡 )  
=𝑑  𝑑𝑣
𝛼  =𝑑 𝛼  
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Velocity gradient
Shear strain rate 𝑑  𝛿  Newton’s Law of Viscosity-
states that the shear stress in
 𝑦 a fluid is directly
proportional to the shear
𝑑  𝛼  𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 strain rate or velocity
gradient, proposed by Isaac
Newton in the late 17th
century;
Types of Fluid
Fluids

Ideal or Inviscid Fluids Real Fluids

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

Pseudo-plastic Fluids Dilatant Fluids

Ideal or Inviscid Fluids Real Fluids
- Assumed to have very low or no viscosity (and - Exhibit infinite viscosities
hence, no resistance to shear) - Non-uniform velocity distribution when
- Incompressible (Ideal fluid) flowing
- Have uniform velocity when flowing - Compressible
- No friction between moving layers of fluid - Experience friction and turbulence in flow
- No eddy currents or turbulence
Fluid Properties
 Newtonian Fluids- fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids-
that obey Newton’s Law fluids whose very thin
of Viscosity; layers exhibit a
nonlinear behavior
between the applied
shear stress and the
shear-strain rate.

Two types of Non-Newtonian Fluids

Dilatant Fluids- fluids that have an increase in apparent viscosity (slope) with an increase in shear stress are
referred to as shear-thickening or dilatant fluids. Examples include water with high concentrations of sugar,
and quicksand.
Pseudo-plastic Fluids- fluids that exhibit the opposite behavior and are called shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic
fluids. Examples include blood, gelatin, and milk. These substances flow slowly at low applications of shear
stress (large slope), but rapidly under a higher shear stress (smaller slope).

 Kinematic Viscosity ()- is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to its mass density; ,
Fluid Properties
Viscosity Measurement
Rotational Viscometer- or Brookfield viscometer, consists of a
solid cylinder that is suspended within a cylindrical container, the
liquid to be tested fills the small space between these two
cylinders, and as the container is forced to rotate with a very slow
constant angular velocity, it causes the contained cylinder to twist
the suspension wire a small amount before it attains equilibrium.

Ostwald Viscometer- invented by W.Ostwald, determines

viscosity by measuring the time for a liquid to flow
through the short, small diameter tube, and then
correlating this time with the time for another liquid of
known viscosity to flow through this same tube.
Sample Problems:
 6. When the force P is applied to the plate, the velocity profile for a Newtonian fluid that is confined under the
plate is approximated by , where y is in mm. Determine the shear stress within the fluid at y = 8 mm. Take .

Solution
:

 𝑣

𝑑𝑣
Recall:
[
 
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦 ] [  𝑑 (𝑢𝑛 )=𝑛𝑢 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑢 ]  
(
𝜏 = 0.5 𝑥 10
−3 𝑁∙𝑠
𝑚2 )( 3 𝑦
−3
4 |
𝑦 =8
1
𝑠 )
1
  4 
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 (12 𝑦  )
−3  𝜏 =3.15 𝑥 10− 4 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑦
=
𝑑𝑦
¿3𝑦 4 |𝑦 =8
Fluid Properties
 Vapor Pressure ()- is the pressure exerted by a vapor within a closed space

Fluid
Mercury 0.000173
turpentine 0.0534
Water 2.34
Ethyl alcohol 5.86
Ether 58.9
Butane 218
Freon-12 584
Propane 855
ammonia 888
Fluid Properties
 Surface Tension ()- is the tensile force per unit length in any direction along the surface of a liquid that is
required to separate the molecules at the surface or can also be thought of as the amount of free-surface
energy required to increase a unit surface area of a liquid;
 𝜎  𝜎  𝜎  𝜎  𝜎 Free-surface energy- is the energy produced by the
work of separating the molecules and thus breaking
the surface tension on the surface of a liquid.

∆  𝑦
 𝐹  𝐹=𝜎 (∆ 𝑦)

∆  𝑥  𝛿 𝑥
𝜎 (∆ 𝑦 ) ( 𝛿 𝑥 )
 
[𝑊
  =𝐹 ( 𝑑 ) cos 𝜃 ]𝑊 / ∆ 𝐴 =
 𝑊 = 𝜎 ( ∆ 𝑦) 𝛿 (1)
(∆ 𝑦 ) ( 𝛿 𝑥 )
( )  𝑊
𝑥
/∆ 𝐴=𝜎
Pressure inside a droplet of 𝜎𝜋
  𝑑 2
  𝑑
 liquid
[∑ 𝐹 𝐻 =0]  
𝜎𝜋 𝑑= 𝑝 𝜋
𝑑 2 
(4) 𝑝=
4𝜎
𝑑
𝑝𝜋
4 ( )
Sample Problems:
 7. The marine water strider, Halobates, has a mass of 0.36 g. If it has six slender legs, determine the minimum
contact length of its leg to support itself in water having a temperature of T = 20 °C. Take and assume the legs
are thin cylinders.

Solution
:  
𝜎 
𝜎 
 𝐿

   0.36 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔 9.81 𝑚

[+↑∑ 𝐹𝑉 =0 ] 6
( 𝑠
2 ) =0.0727 𝑁 ( 𝐿)(2)
𝑚
 𝐿=4.05 𝑥 10−3 𝑚=4.05 𝑚𝑚
Sample Problems:
 8. A small drop of water at is in contact with the air and has diameter 0.0200 in. If the pressure within the
droplet is 0.082 psi greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the surface tension?
Solution
:
4𝜎
Recall: 𝑝 =
[
 
𝑑 ]
  𝑙𝑏 4𝜎
0.082 2 =
𝑖𝑛 0.02 𝑖𝑛 .

  𝑙𝑏
𝜎 =0.00041
𝑖𝑛
Fluid Properties
 Capillary Rise ()- or capillarity, is the rise or fall of liquid surface (meniscus) inside a relatively small tube due
to adhesion of the liquid to the surrounding wall or due to cohesion of the molecules of the liquid;

Materials
Mercury- glass
Water- paraffin

Water- silver
Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion Kerosene- glass
 , the effect of capillarity is minimized Glycerin- glass
2
  𝑑
𝛾=
𝑉
2
]𝐹 =𝜎 ( 𝜋 𝑑) cos( 𝜃 ) [ ∑ 𝐹 𝑉 =0]
𝑊𝑊 = 𝛾 𝑉 =𝛾𝜋
  𝑠𝑡
4
h  Water- glass

Ethyl alcohol-
  𝑑 4 𝜎 cos 𝜃
𝛾𝜋 ( )
4
h=𝜎 ( 𝜋 𝑑) cos 𝜃
 
h=
𝛾𝑑
glass
Sample Problems:
 9. Determine the distance h that a column of mercury in the tube will be depressed when the tube is inserted
into the mercury at a room temperature of 68 °F. Set D = 0.12 in,
Solution
:

𝑙𝑏
4 𝜎 cos 𝜃
 
(
4 31.9 𝑥 10−3
𝑓𝑡 )
cos (180° − 50 ° )
1 2𝑖𝑛
Recall:
[
 
h=
𝛾𝑑 ] h=
( 26.3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑓𝑡
3 )( 𝑓𝑡
𝑠 ) (
3 2. 2 2 (0.12 𝑖𝑛)
1 𝑓𝑡
12𝑖𝑛 )
( )
1 𝑓𝑡 h=−0 .116 𝑖𝑛
 
Fluid Properties 𝑑𝐹
 

 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity ()- or simply bulk modulus, is a measure of

the amount by which a fluid offers a resistance to compression;
𝑑𝐹
  𝑑𝐹
 

 Compressibility ()- or coefficient of

compressibility, is the fractional change in the
volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a 𝑑𝐹
 
constant temperature process;
𝑑𝐹
 
 Pressure Disturbances- imposed on a fluid move in
waves. The velocity or celerity or acoustical or sonic
velocity of pressure wave is expressed as
Sample Problems:
 10. Water at 20 °C is subjected to a pressure increase of 44 MPa. Determine the percent increase in its density,
Take .
Solution
:  𝑚 𝑚
−   𝑉𝑓 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝑖
𝜌𝑖
=
𝑉𝑓
𝑚
𝑉𝑖
=
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑓
−1
−
𝑉 𝑖
− 1
(=
) 3
2.20 𝑥 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎
  𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝑖
𝜌𝑖
=
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑓
−1
𝑉𝑖
  𝑉𝑓 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
  𝑑𝑝 1−   𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝑖 50
[ ]
𝐸 𝐵 =− =
Recall: 𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑖 2.20 𝑥 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎
3 = −1
𝜌𝑖 49
𝑉𝑖  𝑉 𝑓 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
=1−  𝜌 𝑓 − 𝜌 𝑖
  44 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑖 3
2.20 𝑥 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 0.0204= 2.04 %
2.20 𝑥 103 𝑀𝑃𝑎=− 𝜌
𝑉 𝑓 −𝑉 𝑖 𝑖

𝑉𝑖  𝑉 𝑓 49
=
𝑉 𝑖 50
 𝑉𝑓 −𝑉𝑖 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
− =  𝑉 50
𝑉𝑖 2.20 𝑥 103 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑖
=
𝑉𝑓 49
Ideal Gas Law
 Ideal Gas Law- states that the absolute pressure in a gas is directly proportional with its density and its
absolute temperature. A gas is assumed to have enough separation between its molecules so that the molecules
have no attraction to one another. Also, the gas must not be near the point of condensation into either a liquid
or a solid state;

 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑅 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠  𝑝 𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑉 𝑠

=𝑅
 - gas constant,   𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠
=𝑅
𝜌 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠
  1  𝑝 𝑎𝑏𝑠1 𝑉 𝑠 1 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠2 𝑉 𝑠 2
𝑉 𝑠= =
𝜌 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠1 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠 2
Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions- no heat exchange between the gas and its container
 𝑝 𝑘 𝑘
𝑉
𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑝 𝑓 𝑉 𝑓

𝑘 −1 𝑘−1
  𝑘 𝑘
𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓
=
𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑓
 - adiabatic exponent, ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.
Ideal Gas Law
 Boyle’s Law- according to Robert Boyle, at constant   1  𝑝 𝑉 =𝑘
𝑝∝
temperature, decreasing the volume of a container of gas 𝑉
causes the pressure to increase proportionately (isothermal 1  𝑝𝑖 𝑉 𝑖 = 𝑝 𝑓 𝑉 𝑓
 
condition) or in other words, the pressure of a given amount of 𝑝=𝑘
𝑉
gas is inversely proportional to its volume if temperature is
held constant;  Charles’ Law- or Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law, Jacques
 𝑉 Charles and later Joseph Gay-Lussac studied the effect of
  ∝𝑇 =𝑘
𝑉 𝑇 temperature on the volume of a gas. Their studies showed
𝑉
  =𝑘𝑇  𝑉 𝑖 𝑉 𝑓 that, at constant pressure, increasing the temperature of a
= gas increases the volume occupied by the gas, thus, the
𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑓
volume of any sample of a gas varies directly with the
temperature if the pressure is held constant;
 Amonton’s Law- at constant volume, the pressure of
a gas confined in a container increases when the  𝑝
=𝑘
absolute temperature increases. To be more precise,  𝑝 ∝𝑇 𝑇
the pressure of a gas varies directly with the  𝑝=𝑘𝑇  𝑝 𝑖 𝑝𝑓
=
temperature if the volume is held constant; 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑓
Sample Problems:
 11. The tank contains 2 kg of air at an absolute pressure of 400 kPa and a temperature of 20 °C. If 0.6 kg of air
is added to the tank and the temperature rises to 32 °C, determine the pressure in the tank. Use
Solution
: Recall: [  𝑝 𝑎𝑏𝑠 =𝜌 𝑅 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠 ]
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
  𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑖=𝜌 𝑖 𝑅 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑖 Recall:   𝑇 𝐾 =𝑇 ° 𝐶 + 273.15
[ ]
  𝑁 𝐽
𝑚
3
4 00 𝑥 10 2 =𝜌𝑖 286.9 (
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 )
( 20℃ +273.15 ) 𝐾
𝑘𝑔
    𝜌= 𝑚 𝑚
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
  𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝜌 𝑖= 4.756
𝑚
3
Recall: [ 𝑉 ]  
𝑉=
𝜌
  𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑓   2 2+0.6
 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑓 =𝜌 𝑓 𝑅 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑓 𝑉= = =
𝜌𝑖 𝜌𝑓 4.756 𝜌𝑓
  𝐽
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 286.9 (
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 )
( 32 ℃+ 273.15 ) 𝐾  
𝜌𝑓 =4.756
2.6 𝑘𝑔
( )
3 2 𝑚3
 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑓 =5 4 1.29 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎