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Historical Development
Roman Empire- historical records show that through the process of trial and error, early societies, such as the
Roman Empire, used fluid mechanics in the construction of their irrigation and water supply systems.
Archimedes- he discovered the principle of buoyancy in the middle of the 3rd century B.C..
Leonardo Da Vinci- developed principles for the design of canal locks and other devices used for water
CE 023 transport in 15th century.
Evangelista Torricelli- designed the barometer during the 16th and 17th century.
Blaise Pascal- formulated the law of static pressure during the 16th and 17th century.
Isaac Newton- developed his law of viscosity to describe the nature of fluid resistance to flow during the 16th
and 17th century.
Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli- pioneered the field of hydrodynamics in 1700s
Gustave Coriolis- developed water turbines.
Gotthilf Hagen and Jean Poiseuille- studied the resistance to water flowing through pipes.
Ludwig Prandtl- introduced the concept of the boundary layer while studying aerodynamics in the early 20th
century.

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Introduction Fluid Mechanics System of Units

Definitions
Fluid Statics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Dynamics Length- is used to locate the position of a point in space and thereby describe the
Fluid Mechanics- is a study of the behavior of fluids that are either at rest or in motion. size(geometry) of a physical system.
Fluid Statics- considers the forces acting on a fluid at rest Time- is conceived as a succession of events.
Fluid Kinematics- is the study of the geometry of fluid motion. Mass- is a measure of a quantity of matter that is used to compare the action of one Kinetic Units
Fluid Dynamics- considers the forces that cause acceleration of a fluid. body with that of another.
Force- is considered as the action(push or pull) of one body on another. It is 𝑃
Civil Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design drainage channels, water networks, sewer systems, and water- characterized by its point of application, its magnitude, and its direction(sense). 𝜃
resisting structures such as dams and levees.
Mechanical Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design pumps, compressors, turbines, process control systems,
heating and air conditioning equipment, and to design wind turbines and solar heating devices. Temperature- a measurement that indicates how hot or cold something is.
Chemical and Petroleum Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design equipment used for filtering, pumping, and
mixing fluids.
Electronics and Computer Engineers- use fluid mechanics to design switches, screen displays, and data storage
equipment
Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineers- use fluid mechanics principles to study flight, and to design propulsion
systems.

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System of Units Sample Problems:

International System of Units or SI U.S. Customary System of Units (FPS)- a gravitational system of units which is 1. A rocket has a mass of 250𝑥10 slugs on earth. Specify (a) its mass in SI units and (b) its weight in SI units. If
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒̀ 𝑚𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒́ 𝑠 [French] Units-an absolute system of dependent of measurement location.
units that is independent of measurement location (modern version of metric the rocket is on the moon, where the acceleration due to gravity is 𝑔 = 5.30 , determine (c) its weight in SI
system.)
units and (d) its mass in SI units.
Time: second [𝑠]- originally chosen to represent of the mean solar day, Time: second [𝑠]- originally chosen to represent of the mean solar day,
,
now defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
,
now defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
Solution:
corresponding to the transition between two levels of the fundamental state corresponding to the transition between two levels of the fundamental state a. Recall: 14.59 𝑘𝑔 = 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 Other solution:
of the cesium-133 atom. of the cesium-133 atom.
14.59 𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑡
Length: meter [𝑚]- originally defined as of the distance from the Length: foot [𝑓𝑡]- defined as 0.3048 of a meter
250𝑥10 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑥 = 3.6475𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 250𝑥10 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑥 5.30 = 1.325𝑥10 𝑙𝑏
, , 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑠
equator to either pole, now defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-
b. Recall: [𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔] Recall: 4.448 𝑁 = 1 𝑙𝑏
red light corresponding to a certain transition in an atom of krypton-86.
𝑚 4.448 𝑁
Mass: kilogram [𝑘𝑔]- approximately equal to the mass of 0.001 𝑚 of water, Mass: slug [𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔]- defined as the mass which receives an acceleration of one 3.6475𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.81 = 35.782𝑥10 𝑁 1.325𝑥10 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 = 5.892𝑥10 𝑁
defined as the mass of a platinum-iridium standard kept at the International foot per second per second when a force of one pound is applied to it 𝑠 1 𝑙𝑏
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, near Paris, France. Other solution:
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 1 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ c. Recall: [𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔]
𝑓𝑡 0.3048 𝑚 = 5.892𝑥10 𝑁 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
Force: Newton [𝑁]- a derived unit of force from Newton’s Second Law of Motion Force: pound [𝑙𝑏]- defined as the weight of a platinum standard, called the
3.6475𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 5.30 𝑥 =𝑚 = 𝑊 = 5.892𝑥10 𝑁
𝑠 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
which is equal to the force required to give one kilogram of mass an acceleration standard pound, which is kept at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology outside Washington placed at sea level at a latitude of 45°
Recall: 0.3048 𝑚 = 1𝑓𝑡
of one meter per second per second 1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ , 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑔 ⋅
(standard location), the mass of which is 0.453 592 43 𝑘𝑔 35.782𝑥10 𝑁 𝑊
Temperature: Kelvin [𝐾]- is the absolute temperature measured from a point Temperature: Rankine [°𝑅]- is the absolute temperature measured from a
d. 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 3.6475𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 =
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
where the molecules of a substance have so called “zero energy” identified by point where the molecules of a substance have so called “zero energy”. 32.2 5.30
Lord Kelvin. Basic Unit Derived Unit 𝑠 𝑠

5 7

Conversion of Units Sample Problems:

International System of Units (SI) U.S. Customary System of Units (FPS) 2. Convert the following temperatures: (a) 20 °C to degrees Fahrenheit, (b) 500 K to degrees Celsius, (c) 125 °F
1 minute[min] = 60 second[𝑠]
Time: second [𝑠] Time: second [𝑠] 1 hour[ℎ] = 60 minute[min]
to degrees Rankine, (d) 215 °F to degrees Celsius.
Solution:
1 foot[𝑓𝑡] = 12 inch[𝑖𝑛] 5
Length: meter [𝑚] Length: foot [𝑓𝑡] 1 mile[𝑚𝑖] = 5280 feet[𝑓𝑡] a. Recall: c. Recall: 𝑇° = 𝑇° + 459.67
𝑇° = 𝑇° − 32
9
1 short ton[𝑈𝑆 𝑡𝑜𝑛] = 2000 pound[𝑙𝑏] 𝑇° = 125°𝐹 + 459.67
Mass: kilogram [𝑘𝑔] Mass: slug [𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔]
1 long ton[𝑈𝐾 𝑡𝑜𝑛] = 2240 pound[𝑙𝑏]
5
20°𝐶 = 𝑇° − 32 𝑇° = 584.67°𝑅
9
Force: Newton [𝑁] Force: pound [𝑙𝑏] 1 kilopound[𝑘𝑖𝑝] = 1000 pound[𝑙𝑏]
𝑇° = 68°𝐹
1000 𝑚 1 (𝑥 10 ) 𝑚 1 (kilo)𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚 1 h → 𝑠?
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 b. Recall: 𝑇 = 𝑇° + 273.15 d. Recall: 5
0.001 𝑠 1 (𝑥 10 ) 𝑠 1 (milli)𝑠 1 𝑚𝑠 1ℎ 𝑥 𝑥 = 3600 𝑠 𝑇° = 𝑇 − 32
1000 𝑇𝑁 → 𝑘𝑁?
1ℎ 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
500 𝐾 = 𝑇° + 273.15 9 °
1 𝑥 10 𝑁 1 𝑘𝑁 5
1000 𝑇𝑁 𝑥 𝑥 = 1 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑁 𝑇° = 226.85 ℃
1 𝑇𝑁 1 𝑥 10 𝑁 𝑇° = 215°𝐹 − 32
°𝐶 (𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠) → 𝐾
9
𝑇 = 𝑇° + 273.15 °𝐹 (𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡) → °𝑅 𝑇° = 𝑇° + 459.67
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Time: 1𝑠 =1𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇° = 101.67°𝐶
Length: 0.3048 𝑚 = 1𝑓𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 Mass: 14.59 𝑘𝑔 = 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 1 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ = 4.448 𝑁 𝑥 = 14.59 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑙𝑏 = 0.453 592 43 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.807 = 4.448 𝑘𝑔 ⋅
𝑓𝑡 0.3048 𝑚 Force: 4.448 𝑁 = 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑠 𝑠
5
Temperature: 𝑇° = (𝑇° − 32) Derived Unit
9 Basic Unit

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Recall: Sample Problems:

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions 3. Determine the gravitational force acting between two spheres that are touching each other. The mass of each
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion- formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the latter part of the 17th Century sphere is 200 kg and the radius is 300 mm.
First Law (Law of Inertia). A particle originally at
Solution:
rest, or moving in a straight line with constant
velocity, tends to remain in this state provided the 𝑚 𝑚
Recall: 𝐹=𝐺
particle is not subjected to an unbalanced force 𝑑
Second Law (Law of Acceleration). A particle acted
upon by an unbalanced force F experiences an
acceleration a that has the same direction as the 𝑚 = 200 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 = 200 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 200 𝑘𝑔 200 𝑘𝑔
𝑎 𝑚 𝐹 = 66.73 𝑥 10
force and a magnitude that is directly proportional 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠 0.6 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑟 = 0.3 𝑚 𝑟 = 0.3 𝑚
to the force. If F is applied to a particle of mass m,
this law may be expressed mathematically as F=ma 𝑑 = 0.6 𝑚 𝐹 = 7.41 𝑥 10 𝑁
Third Law (Law of Action-Reaction). The mutual forces of 𝐹 𝐹
action and reaction between two particles are equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction, and has collinear line of
action.

9 11

Recall: Definition of Fluid

𝑚 =𝑚
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction- states that two Fluids- are substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and change their relative position
particles are mutually attracted to each other with forces equal without a separation of the mass, they offer practically no resistance to change of form, they readily conform to
in magnitude but opposite in direction, stated mathematically, 𝑊 𝑑 = 6,371 𝑘𝑚 the shape of the solid body with which they come in contact.
𝑚 𝑚 Two Division of Fluid
𝐹=𝐺 Liquid- composed of molecules that are more spread out than those in a solid, their
𝑑
where 𝐹 = force of gravitation between the two particles intermolecular forces are weaker, so liquids do not hold their shape, instead, they flow and take
𝐺 = universal constant of gravitation equal to 𝑚 = 5.972 𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 the shape of their container. It has a free surface and practically incompressible
66.73 𝑥 10 ⋅
Gas- a substance that fills the entire volume of its container, and are composed of molecules that
𝑚 , 𝑚 = mass of each of the two particles
are much farther apart than those of a liquid, as a result, the molecules of a gas are free to travel
𝑑 = distance between the two particles
away from one another. It has no free surface and is compressible.
𝑚 𝐹
𝑚 𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝐹 𝐹=𝐺 = 𝑔 = 9.81 32.2
𝑚 𝑑 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠
𝐺𝑀 Recall:
𝑑 𝑊= (𝑚) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑅 Solid- maintains a definite shape and volume
because the molecules or atoms of a solid are
densely packed and are held tightly together.

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Fluid Properties Fluid Properties

Density (𝝆)- or mass density, refers to the mass of the fluid that is contained in a unit of volume; 𝜌 = Specific Volume (𝑽𝒔 )- is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid; 𝑉 =
Recall: 𝑚 (1) (1) 1
𝜌= 𝜌= 𝑉= 𝑉 =
𝑉 𝑉 𝜌 𝜌

Specific Gravity (𝑺)- is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of its density or specific weight to
that of some other substance that is taken as a “standard”; 𝑆 = =

Solids and liquids are referred to water 𝛾 = 9810 = 62.4 at 39.2°𝐹 (4°𝐶) as standard, while gases are
𝑇℃ − 4
𝜌 = 1000 − often referred to air 𝛾 = 12 = 0.076 free of carbon dioxide or hydrogen at 59°𝐹 (15°𝐶), and a
180
pressure of 1 atm (atmosphere)= 14.7 psi= 101.3 kPa= 29.9 in. Hg= 760 mm Hg
Fluid Specific Gravity
Freshwater 1.00
Seawater 1.03
Oil 0.80
Mercury 13.6

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Fluid Properties Sample Problems:

Specific Weight (𝛄)- or unit weight, is the weight of a fluid per unit volume; 𝛾 = 4. Mercury has a specific weight of 133 when the temperature is 20 °C. Determine its density and specific
Recall: gravity at this temperature.
[𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎]
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑚(g)
Recall: [𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔]
𝑚𝑔
𝛾=
𝑉 𝑁 𝑚 Solids and liquids are referred to water 𝛾 = 9810 =
𝑚 133𝑥10 = 𝜌(9.81 )
𝑚 𝑠 62.4 at 39.2°𝐹 (4°𝐶) as standard, while gases are often
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑘𝑔
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 𝜌 = 13,557.59 referred to air 𝛾 = 12 = 0.076 free of carbon
𝑚
dioxide or hydrogen at 59°𝐹 (15°𝐶), and a pressure of 1
𝜌 𝛾 atm (atmosphere)= 14.7 psi= 101.3 kPa= 29.9 in. Hg=
Recall: 𝑆 = =
𝜌 𝛾 760 mm Hg
𝑘𝑁
133
𝑆 = 𝑚
𝑘𝑁
9.81
𝑚
𝑆 = 13.56

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Sample Problems: Fluid Properties

5. The fuel for a jet engine has a density of 1.32 . If the total volume of fuel tanks A is 50 ft3, determine the Viscosity (𝝁)- is that property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing stress. A
perfect fluid would have no viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, whereas
weight of the fuel when the tanks are completely full. the viscosity of gases increases with it.
Solution: 𝑑𝛿
tan 𝑑𝛼 = = 𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝑦 𝝁- absolute or dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity, is the constant of
𝑚 Recall:
𝜌= [𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡] 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑣(𝑑𝑡) proportionality that measures the resistance to fluid movement;
Recall: 𝑉 Recall: [𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔] 𝑑𝑣(𝑑𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝛼 1 poise = 0.1 =1
= 𝑑𝛼 =
𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑚 𝑊 = 66 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 32.2
1.32 = 𝑠
𝑓𝑡 50 𝑓𝑡 Velocity gradient
𝑊 = 2125.2 𝑙𝑏 Shear strain rate 𝑑𝛿 Newton’s Law of Viscosity-
states that the shear stress in
𝑚 = 66 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑦 a fluid is directly
proportional to the shear
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 strain rate or velocity
gradient, proposed by Isaac
Newton in the late 17th
century; 𝜏 = 𝜇

17 19

Fluid Properties Types of Fluid

Viscosity (𝝁)- is that property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing stress. A Fluids
perfect fluid would have no viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, whereas
𝑣
the viscosity of gases increases with it. 𝐹
𝑑𝛿 𝑦 𝑣 Ideal or Inviscid Fluids Real Fluids
tan 𝑑𝛼 = = 𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
Recall:
[𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡] 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑣(𝑑𝑡) 𝑦 𝑣 Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids
𝑑𝑣(𝑑𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝛼 𝑣
= 𝑑𝛼 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 Pseudo-plastic Fluids Dilatant Fluids
Velocity gradient Ideal or Inviscid Fluids Real Fluids
Shear strain rate 𝑑𝛿 Newton’s Law of Viscosity- - Assumed to have very low or no viscosity (and
𝑣 - Exhibit infinite viscosities
𝐹 states that the shear stress in hence, no resistance to shear) - Non-uniform velocity distribution when
𝑦 a fluid is directly - Incompressible (Ideal fluid) flowing
proportional to the shear - Have uniform velocity when flowing - Compressible
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 strain rate or velocity - No friction between moving layers of fluid - Experience friction and turbulence in flow
gradient, proposed by Isaac - No eddy currents or turbulence
Newton in the late 17th
century; 𝜏 = 𝜇

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Fluid Properties Sample Problems:

Newtonian Fluids- fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids- 6. When the force P is applied to the plate, the velocity profile for a Newtonian fluid that is confined under the
that obey Newton’s Law fluids whose very thin
layers exhibit a plate is approximated by 𝑣 = 12𝑦 , where y is in mm. Determine the shear stress within the fluid at y = 8
of Viscosity; 𝜇 = 𝜏
nonlinear behavior mm. Take 𝜇 = 0.5𝑥10 .
between the applied Solution:
shear stress and the
shear-strain rate.

𝑣
Two types of Non-Newtonian Fluids
Dilatant Fluids- fluids that have an increase in apparent viscosity (slope) with an increase in shear stress are
referred to as shear-thickening or dilatant fluids. Examples include water with high concentrations of sugar, 𝑑𝑣
and quicksand. Recall: 𝜏=𝜇 𝑑(𝑢 ) = 𝑛𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑁 𝑠 1
𝑑𝑦 𝜏 = 0.5𝑥10 3𝑦
Pseudo-plastic Fluids- fluids that exhibit the opposite behavior and are called shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic 𝑚 𝑠
fluids. Examples include blood, gelatin, and milk. These substances flow slowly at low applications of shear
stress (large slope), but rapidly under a higher shear stress (smaller slope). 𝑑𝑣 𝑑(12𝑦 ) 𝜏 = 3.15𝑥10 𝑃𝑎
= = 3𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Kinematic Viscosity (𝛎)- is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to its mass density; 𝜈 = , 1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 0.0001

21 23

Fluid Properties Fluid Properties

Viscosity Measurement Vapor Pressure (𝒑𝒗 )- is the pressure exerted by a vapor within a closed space
Rotational Viscometer- or Brookfield viscometer, consists of a solid
cylinder that is suspended within a cylindrical container, the liquid
to be tested fills the small space between these two cylinders, and Fluid 𝑝 , 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑎𝑡 20℃
as the container is forced to rotate with a very slow constant Mercury 0.000173
angular velocity, it causes the contained cylinder to twist the turpentine 0.0534
suspension wire a small amount before it attains equilibrium.
Water 2.34
Ethyl alcohol 5.86
Ether 58.9
Ostwald Viscometer- invented by W.Ostwald, determines Butane 218
viscosity by measuring the time for a liquid to flow Freon-12 584
through the short, small diameter tube, and then Propane 855
correlating this time with the time for another liquid of
known viscosity to flow through this same tube. ammonia 888

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Fluid Properties Sample Problems:

Surface Tension (𝝈)- is the tensile force per unit length in any direction along the surface of a liquid that is 8. A small drop of water at 80℉ is in contact with the air and has diameter 0.0200 in. If the pressure within the
required to separate the molecules at the surface or can also be thought of as the amount of free-surface energy droplet is 0.082 psi greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the surface tension?
∆
required to increase a unit surface area of a liquid; σ = ∆ Solution:
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 Free-surface energy- is the energy produced by the
work of separating the molecules and thus breaking 4𝜎
the surface tension on the surface of a liquid. Recall: 𝑝=
𝑑
∆𝑦
𝐹 𝐹 = 𝜎(∆𝑦) 𝑙𝑏 4𝜎
0.082 =
𝑖𝑛 0.02 𝑖𝑛.
∆𝑥 𝛿 𝜎(∆𝑦) 𝛿
[𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑 cos 𝜃] 𝑊/∆𝐴 =
(∆𝑦) 𝛿 𝑙𝑏
𝑊 = 𝜎(∆𝑦) 𝛿 (1) 𝜎 = 0.00041
𝑊/∆𝐴 = 𝜎 𝑖𝑛

Pressure inside a droplet of liquid 𝜎𝜋𝑑

𝑑 4𝜎 𝑑
𝐹 = 0 𝜎𝜋𝑑 = 𝑝𝜋 𝑝= 𝑝𝜋
4 𝑑 4

25 27

Sample Problems: Fluid Properties

7. The marine water strider, Halobates, has a mass of 0.36 g. If it has six slender legs, determine the minimum Capillary Rise (𝐡)- or capillarity, is the rise or fall of liquid surface (meniscus) inside a relatively small tube due
contact length of its leg to support itself in water having a temperature of T = 20 °C. Take 𝜎 = 0.0727 and to adhesion of the liquid to the surrounding wall or due to cohesion of the molecules of the liquid; h =
assume the legs are thin cylinders.
Solution:
𝑊 Materials 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝜃
𝜎 6
Mercury- glass 140°
𝜎 Water- paraffin 107°

𝐿
Water- silver 90°
Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion
Kerosene- glass 26°
𝑑 ≥ 10 𝑚𝑚, the effect of capillarity is minimized Glycerin- glass 19°
𝑊 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾𝜋 𝑑 ℎ Water- glass 0°
𝑚 𝛾= 4 𝐹 =0
0.36𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 9.81 𝑉
+↑ 𝐹 =0 𝑠 = 0.0727 𝑁 (𝐿)(2) 𝐿 = 4.05𝑥10 𝑚 = 4.05 𝑚𝑚 𝐹 = 𝜎(𝜋𝑑) cos 𝜃
6 𝑚 𝑑 Ethyl alcohol- 0°
4𝜎 cos 𝜃
𝛾𝜋 ℎ = 𝜎(𝜋𝑑) cos 𝜃 ℎ= glass
4 𝛾𝑑

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Sample Problems: Sample Problems:

9. Determine the distance h that a column of mercury in the tube will be depressed when the tube is inserted 10. Water at 20 °C is subjected to a pressure increase of 44 MPa. Determine the percent increase in its density,
into the mercury at a room temperature of 68 °F. Set D = 0.12 in, 𝜌 = 26.3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 31.9𝑥10 Take 𝐸 = 2.20 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
Solution: Solution:
𝑚 𝑚 𝑉
− 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜌 −𝜌 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 − −1 = 𝜌 −𝜌 𝑉
= 𝑚 = −1 𝑉 2.20𝑥10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = −1
𝜌 𝑉 𝜌 𝑉
𝑉
𝑉 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑝 1− = 𝜌 −𝜌 50
Recall: 𝐸 =− 𝑉 2.20𝑥10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = −1
𝑑𝑉 𝜌 49
𝑉
𝑉 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
= 1− 𝜌 −𝜌
44 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑉 2.20𝑥10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 0.0204 = 2.04%
𝑙𝑏 2.20𝑥10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = − 𝜌
4 31.9𝑥10 cos(180° − 50°) 12 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 −𝑉
4𝜎 cos 𝜃 𝑓𝑡 𝑉 49
Recall: ℎ= ℎ= ℎ = −0.116 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
𝛾𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑓𝑡 =
26.3 32.2 (0.12 𝑖𝑛) 12 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 50
𝑓𝑡 𝑠 𝑉 −𝑉 44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
− = 𝑉 50
𝑉 2.20𝑥10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 =
𝑉 49

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Fluid Properties 𝑑𝐹 Ideal Gas Law

Ideal Gas Law- states that the absolute pressure in a gas is directly proportional with its density and its
absolute temperature. A gas is assumed to have enough separation between its molecules so that the molecules
have no attraction to one another. Also, the gas must not be near the point of condensation into either a liquid
or a solid state; 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (𝑬𝑩 )- or simply bulk modulus, is a measure
of the amount by which a fluid offers a resistance to compression; 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑉
𝐸 = =− / 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹 𝑝 =𝑅
𝑹- gas constant, 𝑅 = = =𝑅 𝑇
𝜌𝑇
1 𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
𝑉 = =
Compressibility (𝜷)- or coefficient of 𝜌 𝑇 𝑇
compressibility, is the fractional change in the Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions- no heat exchange between the gas and its container
volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a 𝑑𝐹
/ 𝑝𝑉 =𝑝 𝑉
constant temperature process; β = =−
𝑑𝐹
Pressure Disturbances- imposed on a fluid move in 𝑝 𝑝
=
waves. The velocity or celerity or acoustical or sonic 𝑇 𝑇
velocity of pressure wave is expressed as 𝑐 = 𝒌- adiabatic exponent, ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

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Ideal Gas Law

Boyle’s Law- according to Robert Boyle, at constant 1
𝑝∝ 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑘
temperature, decreasing the volume of a container of gas causes 𝑉
the pressure to increase proportionately (isothermal condition) 1 𝑝𝑉 =𝑝 𝑉
or in other words, the pressure of a given amount of gas is 𝑝=𝑘
𝑉
inversely proportional to its volume if temperature is held
constant; 𝑝 ∝ Charles’ Law- or Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law, Jacques
𝑉 Charles and later Joseph Gay-Lussac studied the effect of
𝑉∝𝑇 =𝑘 temperature on the volume of a gas. Their studies showed
𝑇
𝑉 𝑉 that, at constant pressure, increasing the temperature of a
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑇 gas increases the volume occupied by the gas, thus, the
volume of any sample of a gas varies directly with the
temperature if the pressure is held constant; 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
Amonton’s Law- at constant volume, the pressure of
a gas confined in a container increases when the 𝑝
=𝑘
absolute temperature increases. To be more precise, 𝑝∝𝑇 𝑇
the pressure of a gas varies directly with the 𝑝 𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑘𝑇 =
temperature if the volume is held constant; 𝑝 ∝ 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

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Sample Problems:
11. The tank contains 2 kg of air at an absolute pressure of 400 kPa and a temperature of 20 °C. If 0.6 kg of air is
added to the tank and the temperature rises to 32 °C, determine the pressure in the tank. Use 𝑅 = 286.9
Solution:
Recall: [𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 ]
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑝 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑇 Recall: 𝑇 = 𝑇° + 273.15
𝑁 𝐽
400𝑥10 =𝜌 286.9 20℃ + 273.15 𝐾
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚
𝜌 = 4.756 𝜌= 𝑉=
𝑚 Recall: 𝑉 𝜌
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑚
𝑚 2 2 + 0.6
𝑝 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑇 𝑉= = =
𝜌 𝜌 4.756 𝜌
𝐽
𝑝 =𝜌 286.9 32℃ + 273.15 𝐾 2.6 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝜌 = 4.756
2 𝑚
𝑝 = 541.29𝑥10 𝑃𝑎

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