05-Oct-20

CE 7352 FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

LTPC3003
COURSE OBJECTIVE:

To introduce the students about properties of the fluids,

behaviour of fluids under static conditions and to impart
basic knowledge of the dynamics of fluids and to expose to
the applications of the conservation laws to

a) flow measurements

b) flow through pipes (both laminar and turbulent) and

c) forces on pipe bends with an exposure to the significance
of boundary layer theory and its thicknesses with expose to
basic principles of working of hydraulic machineries and to
design Pelton wheel, Francis and Kaplan turbine,
centrifugal and reciprocating pumps.

UNIT I FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS 10

• Properties of fluids- Pressure Measurements-Buoyancy and floatation-Flow
characteristics- Eulerian and Lagrangian Principle of fluid flow– concept of control volume
and system – Reynold’s transportation theorem- continuity equation, energy equation and
momentum equation-Applications.

UNIT II FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND BOUNDARY LAYER 9

• Reynold’s Experiment- Laminar flow through circular conduits- Darcy Weisbach equation
– friction factor- Moody diagram- minor losses- Hydraulic and energy gradient – Pipes in
series and parallel -Boundary layer concepts – types of boundary layer thickness.

UNIT III DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODEL STUDIES 7

• Fundamental dimensions - Dimensional homogeneity - Rayleigh’s method and
Buckingham Pi theorem - Dimensionless parameters - Similitude and model studies -
Distorted and undistorted models.

UNIT IV TURBINES 10
• Impact of jets - Velocity triangles - Theory of roto-dynamic machines - Classification of
turbines – Pelton wheel, Francis turbine (inward and outward) and Kaplan turbine-
Working principles - Work done by water on the runner - Efficiencies – Draft tube -
Specific speed - Performance curves for turbines – Governing of turbines.

UNIT V PUMPS 9
• Classification of pumps- Centrifugal pumps– working principle - Heads and efficiencies–
Velocity triangles- Work done by the impeller - performance curves - Reciprocating pump
working principle – indicator diagram and it’s variations – work saved by fitting air vessels.

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COURSE OUTCOMES
On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to

• CO1 Understand the difference between solid and fluid, its

properties and behaviour in static conditions.

• CO2 Understand the conservation laws applicable to fluids and its

application through fluid kinematics and dynamics.

• CO3 Formulate the relationship among the parameters involved in

the given fluid phenomenon and to predict the performances of
prototype by model studies.

• CO4 Estimate losses in pipelines for both laminar and turbulent

conditions and analysis of pipes connected in series and parallel.

• CO5 Understand the concept of boundary layer and its application to

find the drag force excreted by the fluid on the flat solid surface.
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TEXT BOOKS:
• 1. Modi P.N. and Seth, S.M. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics,
Standard Book House, New Delhi, (2017)
• 2. Jain A. K. Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines, Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, 2014.

REFERENCES:
• 1. Narayana Pillai N. Principles of Fluid Mechanics and Fluid
Machines, (3rd Ed.), University Press (India) Pvt. Ltd. 2009.
• 2. S K Som; Gautam Biswas and S Chakraborty, Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Pvt. Ltd., 2012
• 3. Subramanya, K. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Tata
McGraw- Hill Pub. Co., New Delhi, 2011
• 4. Yunus A. Cengel ; John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw
Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,2014
• 5. Streeter, V. L. and Wylie E. B., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.(2010)
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1450
Printing press
Johann Gutenberg
German

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Fluid Mechanics
• Fluids essential to life
– Human body 65% water
– Earth’s surface is 2/3 water
– Atmosphere extends 17km above the earth’s surface
• History shaped by fluid mechanics
– Geomorphology
– Human migration and civilization
– Modern scientific and mathematical theories and methods
– Warfare
• Affects every part of our lives

Analytical Fluid Dynamics (AFD)

• The theory of mathematical physics problem
formulation
• Definition and fluids properties
• Fluid statics
• Fluids in motion
• Continuity, momentum, and energy principles
• Dimensional analysis and similitude
• Surface resistance
• Flow in conduits
• Drag and lift
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Experimental Fluid Dynamics

(EFD)
• Use of experimental methodology and
procedures for solving fluids engineering
systems, including full and model scales,
large and table top facilities, measurement
systems (instrumentation, data acquisition
and data reduction), uncertainty analysis,
and dimensional analysis and similarity

Applications of EFD (cont’d)

Example of industrial application

NASA's cryogenic wind tunnel simulates

flight conditions for scale models--a
critical tool in designing airplanes.

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Full and model scale

• Scales: model, and full-scale

• Selection of the model scale: governed by dimensional analysis and similarity

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Computational Fluid Dynamics

• CFD is use of computational methods for
solving fluid engineering systems, including
modeling (mathematical & Physics) and
numerical methods (solvers, finite differences,
and grid generations, etc.).
• Rapid growth in CFD technology since advent
of computer

ENIAC 1, 1946 IBM WorkStation

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History
Faces of Fluid Mechanics

Archimedes Newton Leibniz Bernoulli Euler

(C. 287-212 BC) (1642-1727) (1646-1716) (1667-1748) (1707-1783)

Navier Stokes Reynolds Prandtl Taylor

(1785-1836) (1819-1903) (1842-1912) (1875-1953) (1886-1975)
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Introduction
 A matter exists in either the solid state or the fluid state.
 The fluid state is further divided into liquid and gaseous state.
 All substance consists of vast number of molecules separated
by empty space.
 molecules are continuously moving.
 Molecules have an attraction for each other and a force of
repulsion between the molecules.
 Space between the molecules
 Force between molecules – Attraction, Molecular Momentum
Exchange, Covalent Bond
 Fluid Continuum
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 Difference between fluids and solids, liquids and gases

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Definition
Fluid
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is
capable of flowing. It has no shape of its own, but
conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
There are two types of fluids : (i) ideal; (ii) real
Ideal fluid
Ideal fluids are those fluids which have no viscosity
and surface tension and they are incompressible. As
such for ideal fluids no resistance is encountered as the
fluid moves. However, in nature the ideal fluids do not
exist and therefore, these are only imaginary fluids.
Real fluid
Real fluids are those fluids which are available in
nature. These fluids possess the properties such as
viscosity, surface tension and compressibility and
therefore a certain amount of resistance is always
offered by these fluids when they are set in motion. 15

Fluid Mechanics (FM):

FM is that branch of science which deals with the
behaviour of the fluids at rest as well as in motion.

Fluid Mechanics can be defined as that part of the science dealing

with the study of fluids.

Fluid statics: Study of fluids at rest.

Fluid kinematics: Study of fluids in motion without considering

the force causing motion (Pressure).

Fluid dynamics: Study of all aspects of fluids in motion

(Pressure).
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Fluid properties - basic fluid properties

(i) Density or mass Density;

(ii) Specific weight or Weight Density;
(iii) Specific gravity;
(iv) Specific volume;
(v) Viscosity;
(vi) Surface tension;
(vii) Capillarity;
(viii) Compressibility; and
(ix) Vapour pressure.
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Density (or) Mass density: It is defined as the ‘mass, i.e.,

amount of matter present in an unit volume of the fluid’.

Density,  = Mass/unit volume (kg/m3)

Specific weight (or) Weight density: defined as the weight of an

unit volume of a fluid’.

 = (Weight of fluid) / (Volume of fluid)

 = (Mass of fluid X Acceleration due to gravity) / Volume of fluid
 = g (N/m3)

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Specific gravity or ‘relative density’

It is defined as ‘the ratio of the mass of a given volume of a
substance to the mass of an equal volume of standard substance at a
constant temperature.
For gases, standard fluid is hydrogen or air at specified
temperature and pressure. Specific gravity is generally denoted by ‘Sg’.
Density of Liquid (gas) Specific weight of Liquid (Gas)
Density of water (air) (OR) Specific weight of water (air)

Specific volume:
Specific volume of a fluid is ‘the volume occupied by unit mass of
the fluid or unit weight of the fluid’.

1

ρ 19

Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and

specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6m3 and weight of
44KN.
Viscosity: Viscosity is that property of a fluid which determines its
resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of the internal fluid
friction which causes resistance to flow. It is primarily due to
cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between the fluid
layers.
- When two layers of fluid moves over other at a distance dy
apart with two difference velocities say u and u + du.
- The viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress on the adjacent lower layer.
- Top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower
layer, Lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer
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u + du

dy
dy
θ
u du

(0,0) u
21

- This shear stress ( ) is proportional to the rate of change of

velocity with respect to y.
  du/dy.
 =  (du/dy).
Where,  is constant of proportionality and known as the
co-efficient of viscosity (or) dynamic Viscosity.

du/dy – rate of shear strain (or) rate of shear deformation (or)

velocity gradient.
 =  / (du/dy) =  dy/du

1 Ns
1 poise 
10 m 2

1
1 centipoise  Poise
100 22

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Kinematic Viscosity:
The ratio of dynamic viscosity () to the density of fluid ()
is termed as Kinematic viscosity. It is denoted by  (nu).
 =  / ; m2/s in MKS and SI systems of units

cm 2
One stoke = =10-4 m2/s
sec

One centistoke = 1/100 Stoke

Newton’s Law of viscosity.

It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of
viscosity. 23
 =  (du/dy)

Fluids which obey the above relation are known as

Newtonian fluids and the fluids which don’t obey the above
relation are called non-newtonion fluids.

Fluids can be classified based on their character of

viscosities and changes with respective to the application of shear
stresses.

Types of fluids
1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4. Non-
Newtonian fluid and 5. Ideal plastic fluid.
Ideal fluid
* A fluid which is incompressible and no viscosity.
* Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid.
Real fluid
* The fluids which are available in real world, it possess
viscosity. 24

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2 Legend
3
1 4
Shear stress () 1. Solid
5 2. Plastic fluid
3. Ideal plastic
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
6
(thixotropic fluid)
5. Newtonian fluid
6. Non-Newtonian fluid
7
(Dilatant fluid)
Rate of shear strain du/dy
7. Inviscid (or) ideal fluid

Dilatant: also known as shear thickening fluids, are liquids

or solutions whose viscosity increases as stress is applied
Thixotropic: (as shear thinning fluids, or pseudoplastics,
The property exhibited by certain gels of becoming fluid
when stirred or shaken and returning to the semisolid state
upon standing

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Newtonian fluid
* The shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain is known as Newtonian fluid.
Non-newtonian fluid

Ideal plastic fluid

* Very high resistance to shear stresses at the beginning.
Afterwards shear stress is proportional to shear strain.

Variation of viscosity with temperature



Liquid
Gas

Cohesive forces – Liquids

T
Attraction force & molecular momentum exchange - Gases 26

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Compressibility (C)
* Compressibility is the ‘reciprocal of the bulk modulus (k)’
* k is defined as the ‘ratio of increased applied stress to the consequent volumetric strain
* which occurs on the application of uniform stress to all parts of a body’. It refers to the
measure of being compressed by the application of stress on the surface.
p1 p1 – initial pressure
p2
 – initial volume
1

p2 – increased pressure
p1 p2  – decreased volume
2

p = p2 – p1
p2 p1    2  1
Δ is  ve since  2  1
p2
p1

Bulk modulus, denoted by K, is given as:

K = Increase in applied stress/volumetric strain
  p  1 
The –ve sign indicates decrease in volume with increase of pressure.
Compressibility, denoted by C, is given as:
C = 1/K
Dimension of K is the same as that of p (i.e., stress force/area, ML-1T-2) and the unit is
also the same that of p (i.e., kg(f)/m2 in MKS system and N/m2 in SI system). 27

SURFACE TENSION

• Cohesive, attraction and adhesive force

• Cohesive/attractive forces between gas molecules

• Cohesive forces between liquid molecules

• Adhesive forces between gas and liquid molecules

• Cohesive forces of liquids are high compared to that of gases because particles

are closely packed in liquids.

• The cohesive forces of liquids are also high compared to the adhesive forces

between liquid and gas.

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1
1 1
Gas Gas 2 2
Interface 2
2 2
Liquid Liquid
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
1 is gas molecule
2 2 2 is liquid molecule

2 2

 The downward force is due to the differences between cohesive and adhesive
forces. Net - downward force - since the cohesion is greater than the adhesion.
 To counteract this downward force, the liquid molecules at the interface would
develop an apparent tension.
 Surface tension is defined as the ‘apparent tension which is manifested to
counteract the net downward force prevailing at the interface between a gas and a
liquid or between two immiscible liquids’.
 Surface tension is expected to stretch the particle and therefore, it is a line force
acting along the circumference of the particle, denoted by the Greek Alphabet, 
(sigma). Generally, it is taken as the force per unit length. Its dimension is ML2T-2.

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Capillarity
 The basis for capillarity is the consequence of surface tension which is also known
as capillary rise or capillary fall.
 Adhesion between water and glass is greater than that either between air and glass
or between water and air. The adhesion between water and glass is also greater
than the cohesion between water particles. Therefore, the water particles at the
surface, which is already under tension, will be attracted towards the glass wall
resulting in the rise (at the line of contact) of water surface with the wall.
  of water
Glass
Air Air 
Water Mercury
Glass

 is angle of contact  < 90° signifies a rise and  > 90° signifies a fall

 The cohesion between mercury particles is greater than the adhesion between
mercury and glass. Therefore, the mercury particles will be repelled from the glass
surface resulting in fall (at the line of contact) of the surface of mercury with the wall
of the vessel.
    h is capillarity;
d
d is diameter of the tube;
h  is surface tension force;
h 
  is angle of contact;
 is specific weight of the liquid. 30
d  

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* For equilibrium, the vertical component of the total surface tension is equal to the
weight of the liquid lifted up (or pushed down).
dcos = (d2/4)  h 4 cos
h =
d
Surface tension on droplets, hallow bubble and jet
* surface tension was the cause for capillarity and it influences in the formation of
droplets, jets and bubbles.
* Droplets and bubbles are in spherical shape, but the jets are in cylindrical form. While
the droplets and jets are fully filled with liquids, bubbles will enclose air inside.
* The surface membrane will be under the influence of surface tension. To compensate
this, the inside pressure would be greater than that outside, i.e., atmospheric pressure.
  

 p
p p p

l
Upward arrows indicate  and downward arrows indicate p
(a) Droplet (b) Bubble (c) Jet
p - pressure inside (excess of outside pressure);  - surface tension; d - diameter; and l
– length of jet.
For equilibrium, the net forces must be equal to zero. Accordingly:
Droplet : p (d2/4) =  (d) p = 4/d
Bubble : p (d2/4) = 2 (d) p = 8/d
(Bubbles will have two surfaces, one inside and the other outside) 31
Jet :p (l x d) =  (l x 2) p = 2/d

Vapour pressure
* The vapour particles escaping through
the surface will form a thin film in which
the concentration of the vapour will be
high.
* This would exert a pressure on the
liquid surface itself.
* Therefore, vapour pressure is defined
as ‘the pressure exerted by a vapour on
its liquid surface, either by itself or in a
mixture of gases’.
* The term is often taken to mean
saturated vapour pressure, which is the
vapour pressure of a vapour in contact
with its liquid form. The saturated
vapour pressure increases with rise of
temperature.

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T, °C P, kPa
0 0.6113
5 0.8726
10 1.2281
15 1.7056
20 2.3388
100 25 3.169
30 4.2455
80
Pressure (kPa)

35 5.6267
40 7.3814
60 45 9.5898
50 12.344
40 55 15.752
60 19.932
20
65 25.022
70 31.176
0
75 38.563
0 20 40 60 80 100 80 47.373
Temp (C)
85 57.815
90 70.117
95 84.529
100 101.32

No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids

It has been established through experimental observations that the relative
velocity between the solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero
whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid surface. This is known as no-slip
condition.

This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same as the wetting of
surfaces by the fluids. For example, mercury flowing in a stationary glass
tube will not wet the surface, but will have zero velocity at the wall of the
tube.

The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-slip
condition is a consequence of fluid viscosity.

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Pressure and its measurement

Pascal law
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all
directions.
PX = PY =PZ

Hydrostatic Law

The rate of increase of pressure in a vertical downward direction must be equal

to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
o Surface
p
p=h +ve
h

The above equation states that the pressure ‘p’ at a

point whose depth is ‘h’ from the surface is equal to the product
of ‘’ and ‘h’. p varies linearly with the depth h. This equation is y

popularly known as the hydrostatic equation.

Hence, the hydrostatic pressure is constant in a horizontal plane, but it will

increase from layer to layer in the vertically downward direction. 35

Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum pressure

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems.
* Pressure is generally expressed with respect to an arbitrary datum. This datum can be
either ‘absolute zero pressure’ or ‘local atmospheric pressure’.
* Absolute zero pressure means the load at that surface is absolutely zero, it can exist
only in complete vacuum. But in nature, every surface is influenced by the atmosphere.

Gauge Standard atmospheric pressure

pressure

Local atmospheric pressure

1. atmosphere
760 mm of Hg Absolute
101325 Pa pressure Negative or Suction or Vacuum Pressure
10.34 m of water
Local
barometric
pressure
Absolute
pressure

Absolute zero pressure

Complete Vacuum

* Consequently, the atmospheric air exerts hydrostatic pressure on any plane, which
depends on the height of the atmosphere at that place. This hydrostatic pressure,
exerted by the atmospheric air, is termed as ‘atmospheric pressure’. 36

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Atmospheric pressure head is 760mm of mercury or 10.33 meter of water

Measurement of pressure
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices.
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical gauges
Manometers
(i) Simple manometers are used to measure the pressure at a point
(ii) Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two
points.

(i) Simple manometers:

a) Piezometer, (b) U-tube manometer, (c) Inclined manometer

(ii) Differential manometers:

(a) Differential manometer, (b) Micro manometer

Mechanical gauges:

a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, b) Bourdon tube, c) Dead weight and d) Bellows

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a) Simple Manometers

a
a

A + A +
h1 h1
X X
m h2 h2
a h X

A + m X

(a) Piezometer (b) Gauge pressure

(c) Vacuum pressure

pa be the pressure at the point ‘A’

a be the specific weight of the liquid;
m be the specific weight of the manometric liquid;
and h is the heights of liquids as indicated in the figure

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Differential manometer
* A differential manometer is used to measure the pressure difference between two
points either in a pipe line or in two different pipes.

a
Pa+haa=Pb+mh+bhb Pa-haa=Pb - mh - bhb
A
m
+ B b

+
hb
ha
X X

h h

X X ha
m hb
B

A
+
b
+
a

(a) Normal differential manometer (b) Inverted differential manometer

(m > a and m > b) (m < a and m < b)
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Fluid Statics
• Fluid Statics deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest.
• In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
• Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
• The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
– Normal stress is due to pressure
– Variation of pressure is due only to the Sp.weight of
the fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
• Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.

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Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure

Total Pressure:
the force exerted by a static fluid on a
plane/curved surface (Normal force)
Centre of Pressure:
It’s a point through which the resultant
pressure force will be acting at right angle to
the plane.
Vertical plane surface
Horizontal plane surface
Incline plane surface
Curved plane surface

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane

Surfaces
• On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
• For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is
called center of
pressure, must be
determined.
• Atmospheric pressure
Patm can be neglected
when it acts on both sides
of the surface.

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Resultant Force h hc hR
 
y yc yR
 sin 

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid
is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the
surface

 The magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing

these differential forces over entire surface. h hc hR
   sin 
y yc y R

The integral is the first moment of the area with respect to the x axis

or
 The moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the
distributed pressure force, or
Therefore,

The integral is the second moment of the area with respect to axis
formed by the intersection of the plane surface and the free surface.

By parallel axis theorem

Thus,

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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved

Surfaces

• FR on a curved surface is more important since it

requires integration of the pressure forces that change
direction along the surface.
• Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components FH and FV separately.

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved

Surfaces
• Horizontal force component on curved surface:
FH=Fx=  dFx   hdA sin 
• Vertical force component on curved surface:
FV=Fy+W,
Fy=  dFy   hdA cos 
• where W is the weight of the liquid in the
enclosed block W=gV.
• Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
• Angle of force is  = tan-1(FV/FH)

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BUOYANCY: When a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or

partially it is subjected to an upward force which tends to lift (or buoy) it
up. This tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid, due
to an upward force opposite to the action of gravity, is known as
buoyancy.

BUOYANT FORCE : The force tending to lift up the body under such
conditions is known as buoyant force (or force of buoyancy or upthrust).

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY: The point of application of the force of

buoyancy on the body is known as centre of buoyancy.
The magnitude of the buoyant force can be determined by the well-
known Archimedes’ principle, which states that when a body is
immersed in a fluid either wholly or partially, it is buoyed or lifted up
by a force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.

It is due to this upward force acting on a body immersed in a fluid,

either wholly or partially, that there occurs an apparent loss in the
weight.

Buoyant force on a wholly submerged

body

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For a body immersed (either wholly or partially) in a fluid, the self-weight of

the body always acts in the vertical downward direction. As such if a body
floating in fluid is to be in equilibrium the buoyant force must be equal to the
weight of the body i.e.,
FB = W

Further the lines of action of both, the buoyant force and the weight of the
body must lie along the same vertical line, so that their moment about any
axis is zero.

A body immersed in a fluid if the buoyant force exceeds the weight of the
body, the body will rise until its weight equals the buoyant force. On the
other hand if the weight of an immersed body exceeds the buoyant force,
the body will tend to move downward and it may finally sink.

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Buoyancy and Stability

• Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a
body. FB=fgV., centre of buoyancy is the
point through which FB acts, FB=C.G
• Archimedes principal : The buoyant
force acting on a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through
the centroid of the displaced volume.

Buoyancy and Stability

• Buoyancy force FB is
equal only to the displaced
volume fgVdisplaced.
• Three scenarios possible
 body<fluid: Floating body
 body=fluid: Neutrally buoyant
 body>fluid: Sinking body

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Meta-Centre
• It is a point at which the line of
action of the buoyancy force will
meet the normal axis of the body
when the body is subjected to a
small angular displacement 1
M  BG
• The distance between meta centre 
(M) and Centre of gravity (G) is
called Meta centric height.
FB
I
GM   BG

Where
B- Centre of buoyancy
I – Moment of Inertia about YY axis
G- Centre of gravity
- Vol. of the body submerged in
water

Stability of Floating Bodies

• If body is bottom heavy
(G lower than B), it is
always stable.
• Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
• Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>1, ship is stable.

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Stability of Immersed Bodies

• Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
– G below B: stable
– G above B: unstable
– G coincides with B: neutrally stable.

Flow characteristics
Introduction
* Kinematics is defined as that branch of science deals with motion of particles without considering
forces causing motion.
* Velocity at any point in a flow field at any time is studied in this branch of science.
* Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution and force acting on the fluid can be
determined.
Methods of describing fluid motion
Two methods i) Lagrangian method and ii) Eulerian method.
* Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion and its velocity,
acceleration, density, etc. are described.
* In case of Eulerian method the velocity, acceleration, pressure, etc are described at a point in
flow field
Characteristics of flow
i) Steady and unsteady flows
ii) Uniform and non-uniform flows
iii) Laminar and turbulent flows
iv) Compressible and incompressible flows
v) Rotational and irrotational flows, and 56
vi) One, two and three dimensional flows

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i) Steady and unsteady flows

* If there is no change in any of the flow parameters (velocity, pressure, density etc) at a point with
respect to time, then the flow is said to be steady.
•Otherwise, the flow is unsteady.
If V is the velocity at a point (x,y,z), then:

V/t = 0 steady flow

V/t  0 unsteady flow

Likewise, there is no change in other flow parameters as well in a steady flow.

ii) Uniform and non uniform flows

* If the flow characteristics at a given time remain the same at all points, then the flow is said to be
uniform.
* Otherwise, it is non uniform flow.

V/s = 0 uniform flow (‘s’ represents space)

V/x = 0; V/y = 0; and V/z = 0

V/s  0 nonuniform flow

V/x  0; V/y  0; and V/z  0

* The velocity vector is identical at every point at a given instant of time in an uniform flow.
* It varies from place to place at a given instant in a non uniform flow. 57

iii) Laminar and turbulent flows

* If the fluid particles move along smooth paths in layers with one layer smoothly over the other,
then the flow is said to be a laminar flow.
* Otherwise, the flow is termed as turbulent flow.

Sl. No Laminar flow Turbulent flow

2
Particles move along well defined paths or No definite paths or streamline because of
streamlines mixing

3
No transport of particles from one layer to Transport of particles from one layer to another
another (i.e., mixing)
This is also called as streamline flow or viscous
4 Non-streamline or nonviscous flow
flow

5
No collision of particles and hence no exchange Collision of particles and hence exchange of
of momentum momentum

Turbulence will cause further shear and hence

Newton’s law viscosity is applicable
6 eddy viscosity has to be added
 =  (du/dy)
 = (+) (du/dy)

Reynolds Number, R = V D/

where V is the mean velocity of flow (m/s)
D is the Diameter of pipe (m) 58
and  is the Kinematic viscosity (m2/s).

29
 05-Oct-20

R  2000 … Laminar flow

2000 < R < 4000 … Transitional flow
R  4000 … Turbulent flow

Iv) Compressible and incompressible flows

ρ/s = 0 incompressible flow
ρ/s  0 compressible flow

v) Rotational and irrotational flows

* Particles move in stream line and rotate about its axis (Rotational).
* Particles move in stream line and don’t rotate about its axis (Irrotational).

vi) One, two and three dimensional flows

One-dimensional flow
* In which the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate (x)
u = f(x), v = 0 and w =0
u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

Two-dimensional flow
* In which the velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates (x and y)
u = f1 (x, y), v = f2 (x, y) and w = 0

Three dimensional flow

* In which the velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular direction (x, y and z)
u = f1 (x, y, z), v = f2 (x, y, z), w = f3 (x, y, z)
59

What is System
* A system refers to a defined fixed mass of material and distinguishes it from all other matter,
called it surroundings
* The boundaries of a system form a closed surface.
* The surface may vary with time, so that it contains the same mass during changes in its
conditions
* The system may contain infinitesimal mass or a large finite mass of fluids and solids at the will of
the investigator.
* In the system point of view the conservation of mass equation states that the mass within the
system remains constant with time.
Control volume
* The fluid may enter and leave the control volume across the control surface
* The net rates of change of fluid mass, momentum and energy across the control surface are
called mass flux, momentum flux and energy flux.
Rate of flow or Discharge
* It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe or channel.
* For an incompressible fluid the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of fluid
flowing across the section per second.
* For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid flowing across
the section. 60

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 05-Oct-20

Reynolds—Transport Theorem
(RTT)
• A system is a quantity of matter of fixed identity. No
mass can cross a system boundary.
• A control volume is a region in space chosen for study.
Mass can cross a control surface.
• The fundamental conservation laws (conservation of
mass, energy, and momentum) apply directly to
systems.
• However, in most fluid mechanics problems, control
volume analysis is preferred over system analysis (for
the same reason that the Eulerian description is usually
preferred over the Lagrangian description).
• Therefore, we need to transform the conservation laws
from a system to a control volume. This is accomplished
with the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT).

Reynolds—Transport Theorem (RTT)

There is a direct analogy between the transformation from

Lagrangian to Eulerian descriptions (for differential analysis using
infinitesimally small fluid elements) and the transformation from
systems to control volumes (for integral analysis using large, finite
flow fields).
• Material derivative (differential analysis):
D b b  
D t

t

 V  b
• General RTT, nonfixed CV (integral analysis):
d B sys   
 
C V  t
  b  d V   C S  b V n d A
dt

31
 05-Oct-20

• Interpretation of the RTT:

– Time rate of change of the property B of the system is equal to
(Term 1) + (Term 2)
– Term 1: the time rate of change of B of the control volume
– Term 2: the net flux of B out of the control volume by mass
crossing the control surface

RTT Special Cases

For moving and/or deforming control volumes,
dB   
sys
   b d V    b V n d A
dt C V t C S

• Where the absolute velocity V in the second term is replaced by the

relative velocity
Vr = V -VCS
• Vr is the fluid velocity expressed relative to a coordinate system moving
with the control volume.

For steady flow, the time derivative drops out,

0
dB     
sys
   b d V   C S  b V r n d A    bV r n d A
dt C V t C S

For control volumes with well-defined inlets and

outlets
dB d
sys

dt

dt  C V
 bdV  
out
 avg b avg V r ,a v g A  in
 avg b avg V r ,a vg A

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 05-Oct-20

Continuity Equation
* The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity equation.
* The fluid flowing through the pipe t all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is
constant. Consider two cross-sections of a pipe.

2
1

Direction of flow
1
2
Let V1 = Velocity at cross section 1-1
ρ1 = Density section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe section 1-1
and V2, ρ2, A2 are corresponding values at section 2-2
Then rate of flow at section 1-1 = ρ1 A1 V1
Rate of flow at section 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V2
According to law conservation of mass
Rate of flow at section 1-1 = Rate of flow at section 2-2
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
* If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ1 = ρ2 65

A1 V1 = A2 V2

Path line, streak line and streamline

* The path along which a particle will move from one point to a next point is termed as
path line.
* These trails of path lines of dyed particles are termed as streak lines.
* Streamline is an imaginary continuous line. It can be drawn through the fluid mass in
motion. The tangent to the streamline at any point will indicate the direction of the
velocity at that point.
Steady

Unsteady

(a) Path line (b) Streak line (c) Streamline

Three dimensional continuity equation

Assume that the mass rate of flow can increase in the respective +ve directions. Also the
mass rates of flow per unit area as u, v and w at the centre of the control volume in
the respective directions, the mass rates of flow entering the control volume and those
leaving can be written as indicated in the figure by using mathematical principles
v + (v)/y (y/2)

66

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 05-Oct-20

v + (v)/y (y/2)
w + (w)/z (z/2)
x
F G

A B y
v
w
u - (u)/x (x/2) u u + (u)/x (x/2)
E H
z
C
y D v - (v)/y (y/2)
z
w - (w)/z (z/2)

Control volume for continuity equation

Considering x-direction:

Mass rate of flow entering the control volume through AFED = [u-(u)/x (x/2)] y z

Mass rate of flow leaving the control volume through BGHC = [u+(u)/x (x/2)] y z

 Net mass rate of flow entering the control volume in x-direction

= [u - (u)/x (x/2)] y z - [u + (u)/x (x/2)] y z
= - ((u)/x) x y z
Similarly,
in y-direction = - ((v)/y) x y z 67
in z-direction = - ((w)/z) x y z

Total mass rate of flow entering the control volume

= sum of all the flows entering from all directions

= - [(u)/x + (v)/y + (w)/z] x y z

Control volume = x y z
Mass in the control volume =  x y z
Rate of change of mass = ( x y z)/t = (/t) x y z

By the principle of conservation of mass, if the mass in the control volume has to remain
the same with respect to time, the total mass rate of flow entering the control volume has to be
equal to the rate of change of mass within the control volume.

 - [(u)/x + (v)/y + (w)/z] x y z = (/t) x y z

- /t - [(u)/x + (v)/y + (w)/z] = 0

/t + (u)/x + (v)/y + (w)/z = 0

This is the general continuity equation in three dimension.

If the flow is steady, then /t = 0

 (u)/x + (v)/y + (w)/z = 0
If the fluid is incompressible, then  is constant in space
u/x + v/y + w/z = 0

This is the continuity equation for a steady incompressible flow in three dimension.
68
u/x + v/y = 0 … for a steady incompressible flow in two dimension
u/x = 0 … for a steady incompressible flow in one dimension

34
 05-Oct-20

Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline

The equation can be derived by considering a streamline as shown in Fig. and by
considering an element as indicated in the figure.
Streamline

S p + (p/s) S

Z

p 
W  W cos
Let the fluid be incompressible and frictionless;
n
 be the density of the fluid; W sin
s
p be the pressure;
V be the tangential velocity;
and A be the area of cross section of the element of length S.
Mass of the element, M =  A S
Weight of the element, W = M g =  g A S
Since the fluid is frictionless and incompressible, the following are the only forces acting on the
element:
(i) pressure forces on the end faces; and
(ii) self weight (i.e., body force).
Net pressure force in the direction of flow = p A - [p + (p/s) S] A = - (p/s) S A
Component of weight in the direction of flow = - ( g A S) sin 
According to Newton’s second law motion: F = d(M V)/dt
 - (p/s) S A - ( g A S) sin  = d ( A S V)/dt
- p/s -  g sin  =  dV/dt =  as
du u dx u dy u dz u dt du u u u u 69
ax      , ax  u v w 
dt x dt y dt z dt t dt dt x y z t

where as is the total acceleration in the direction of motion.

(1/) p/s + g sin  + as = 0
sin  = Z/S (see the figure)
Total acceleration, as = local acceleration + convective acceleration = V/t + V V/s
 (1/) p/s + g (Z/S) + V/t + V V/s = 0
This is Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline for an one dimensional flow.
If the flow is steady and if V, Z, p and  are functions of ‘s’ only, Euler’s equation can be reduced to:
(1/)dp + gdz + VdV = 0
Since, the fluid is incompressible (i.e.,  is constant and independent of p), the above equation can
be integrated as:
(1/)dp + gdz + VdV = 0
p/ + g Z + V2/2 = constant
p/( g) + Z + V2/2g = constant

p/ + Z + V2/2g = constant

This equation is known as the ‘Bernoulli’s equation’.

Note: Please keep it in mind that the above equation is derived based on the following
assumptions:
(i) the fluid is incompressible and frictionless; and
(ii) the flow is steady and irrotational.

Therefore, the above Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only for incompressible frictionless fluid
under a steady flow condition.
70

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Different forms of energy of fluid mass

A given body of fluid mass may possess energy in three different forms. They are:
(i) Potential energy;
(ii) Pressure energy; and
(iii) Kinetic energy.
Potential energy: This is by virtue of the position. A body of fluid mass may possess
potential energy by virtue of its position or location in the vertical direction with respect to
a chosen datum. For example, a body of water at a hill top can flow down by gravity to
the foot-hill on its own. This is because of the elevation at which it is placed.
Pressure energy: This is by virtue of the pressure. A body of fluid mass may possess
pressure energy by virtue of its pressure with respect to the atmospheric pressure or any
other chosen datum pressure. For example, at a point of depth ‘h’ from the surface
inside a fluid mass, the pressure is equal to the product of specific weight and the depth
(i.e., p =  h).
Kinetic energy: This is by virtue of motion. A body of fluid mass may possess kinetic
energy by virtue of its movement. This is because of the momentum possessed by a
moving body. For a body of fluid mass, M, moving with an average velocity, V, the
kinetic energy is given by ½ M V2.
Application of Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli’s equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow when
energy considerations are involved.
Venture meter, Orifice meter and pitot tube.
71

The Momentum Equation:

Based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle.
* Which states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to change in momentum of flow per
unit time in that direction
According to Newton’s second law :
 F= M a = Mass x Acceleration
= Mass x Change in velocity/Change in time = M (V/t)
= (Mass/Change in time) x Change in velocity = (M/t) V
= Mass rate of flow x Change in velocity
=  Q (V2 - V1)
  F =  Q (V2 - V1)
where  is density of the fluid;
Q is discharge;
V2 is final velocity;
and V1 is initial velocity.

Application of momentum principle on a pipe bend

Consider two sections (1) and (2)

V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1
P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1
A1 = Area of cross section of pipe at section 1
V2, P2, A2 = Corresponding values of velocity, pressure and area at section 2

72

36
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V2 sinθ V2
2
1 Fy
θ
P1A1 θ P2A2 sinθ V2 cosθ
Fx P2A2

θ
P2A2 cosθ
Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the direction of x and y will be equal to FX and Fy
but in the opposite directions. Hence the component of the force exerted by bend on the fluid in the
direction x =-Fx and in the direction of y = -Fy. The other external forces acting on the fluid are P1A1
and P2A2 on the section (1) and (2) respectively. The momentum equation in x-direction is given by
Net force acting on fluid in the direction x = Rate of change of momentum in x direction
P1A1-P2A2cosθ-Fx =  Q (V2 cosθ- V1)
Fx = - Q (V2 cosθ - V1) + p1A1 –p2A2 cosθ
Similarly the momentum equation in y-Direction gives
0 – P2A2 sin θ – Fy =  Q (V2 sinθ- 0)
Fy = - Q V2 sinθ - P2A2 sin θ
The Resultant force FR = √ Fx2 + Fy2
And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is given by tan θ = Fy / Fx.
73

37