INTRODUCTIONFLUID MECHANICS

Roman Empire Used fluid mechanics in the

construction of their irrigation
and water supply systems
Discovered the principle of
FLUID MECHANICS
Archimedes buoyancy in the middle of the 3rd
 A study of the behavior of fluids that are either at century B.C.
rest or in motion
Discovered principles for the
 Branches: Fluid Statics, Fluid Kinematics and Fluid
design of canal locks and other
Dynamics Leonardo Da Vinci
devices used for water
FLUID STATICS transport in 15th century

 Considers the forces acting on a fluid at rest Designed the barometer during
Evangelista Torricelli
FLUID KINEMATICS the 16th and 17th century

 The study of the geometry of fluid motion Formulated the law of static
Blaise Pascal pressure during the 16th and 17th
FLUID DYNAMICS century
 Considers the forces that cause acceleration of a
Developed his law of viscosity to
fluid
describe the nature of fluid
Isaac Newton
resistance to flow during the 16th
and 17th century
ENGINEERS USING FLUID MECHANICS
1. Civil Engineers Leonhard Euler and Pioneered the field of
Daniel Bernoulli hydrodynamics in 1700s
- use fluid mechanics to design drainage channels, water
networks, sewer systems, and water-resisting structures such Gustave Coriolis Developed water turbines
as dams and levees. Gotthilf Hagen and Studied the resistance to water
Jean Poiseuille flowing through pipes
2. Mechanical Engineers
Introduced the concept of the
- use fluid mechanics to design pumps, compressors, turbines, boundary layer while studying
process control systems, heating and air conditioning Ludwig Prandtl
aerodynamics in the early 20th
equipment, and to design wind turbines and solar heating century
devices.

3. Chemical and Petroleum Engineers

- use fluid mechanics to design equipment used for filtering, SYSTEM OF UNITS
pumping, and mixing fluids.

4. Electronics and Computer Engineers LENGTH

 Used to locate the position of a point in space
- use fluid mechanics to design switches, screen displays, and
 Describe the size (geometry) of a physical system
data storage equipment.

5. Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineers TIME

 Conceived as a succession of events
- use fluid mechanics principles to study flight, and to design
propulsion systems.
MASS
 A measure of a quantity of matter that is used to compare
the action of one body with that of another

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
FORCE
Considered as the action (push or pull) of one body on
Description another
 FLUID MECHANICS
 Characterized by its point of application, its magnitude
and direction (sense) 4. Force: pound (lb)
 weight of a platinum standard (standard
TEMPERATURE pound)
 A measurement that indicates how hot or cold something  1 lb = 0.45359243 kg
is  1 lb = 4.448 N
 1 kilopound (kip) = 1000 lb

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF 5. Temperature: Rankine (°R)

UNITS (SI)  absolute temperature (zero energy)
 T°R = T°F +459.67
1. Time: second (s)
 1 min = 60 s
 1 hr = 60 min
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
 1 hr = 3600 s
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
2. Length: meter (m)
 1 km = 1000 m  formulated by Sir Isaac Newton
 1 cm = 1 mm
 1 m = 100 cm First Law (LAW OF INERTIA): A particle originally at rest
 1 m = 1000 mm or moving in a straight line with constant velocity

3. Mass: kilogram (kg) Second Law (LAW OF ACCELERATION): A particle

 approximately equal to the mass of 0.001 m3 of acted upon by an unbalance force experiences an acceleration
water that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is
directly proportional to the force (F = ma)
4. Force: Newton (N)
 1N = 1 kg x m/s2 Third Law (LAW OF ACTION-REACTION): The mutual
 1 dyne = 1 g x cm/s2 forces of action and reaction between two particles are equal
 1 teranewton (TN) = 1x109 kN in magnitude, opposite in direction and has collinear line of
 1 kN = 1000 N
action.
 1000 TN = 1x1012 kN

5. Temperature: Kelvin (K) NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATIONAL

 absolute temperature (zero energy) – identified ATTRACTION
by Lord Kelvin
 T°C = 5/9(T°F -32) or T°F = 9/5(T°C +32)  Two particles are mutually attracted to each other
 T°K = T°C +273.15 or T°C = T°K -273.15 with forces equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction
U.S. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM OF UNITS
(FPS)

1. Time: second (s)

 1 min = 60 s
GENERAL FORMULA:
 1 hr = 60 min
 1 hr = 3600 s m 1 m2
F=G 2
d
2. Length: foot (f)
 1 ft = 0.3048 m
F = force
 1 ft = 12 in
G = universal constant of gravitation
 1 mile = 5280 ft 3
m
G = 66.73 x10 -12

3. Mass: slug (slug) kg∗s 2

 1 slug = 1 lb x s2/ft m1m2 = mass of two particles
 1 slug = 14.59 kg d = distance = 2r
 1 short ton (US ton) = 2000 lb
 1 long ton (UK ton) = 2240 lb
 FLUID MECHANICS
NOTES: 2
( T ℃−4 )
ρwater =1000−
 m2 = 5.972 x 1024 kg (Earth) 180
 d = 6,371 km (Earth)
Note: if temperature is not given, always use 1000 as your
 g = 9.81 m/s2 (Earth)
temperature
 g = 5.30 ft/ s2 (Moon)
 W = mg Specific Weight ( γ )
 F = ma
 Unit Weight
 The weight of the fluid per unit volume
FLUIDS
 Substances capable of flowing, having particles FORMULA:
which easily move and change their relative position W
w/out a separation of the mass γ=
V
 Offer practically no resistance to change of form
 Readily conform to the shape of the solid body with Note:
which they come in contact

TWO DIVISIONS OF FLUIDS γ=

mg
V [ ρ=
m
V ] γ= ρg

1. Liquid
 composed of molecules that are more spread out than those
in a solid Specific Volume (V s )
 intermolecular forces are weaker
 do not hold their shape; flow and take the shape of  The volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid
container
 has a free surface and practically incompressible FORMULA:
1
2. Gas V s=
 fills the entire volume of its container ρ
 composed of molecules that are much farther apart than
those of a liquid Note:
 free to travel away from one another
 has no free surface and compressible
[ ρ=
m
V ] ρ=
(1)
V
V=
(1)
ρ

FLUID PROPERTIES Specific Gravity ( S )

Density ( ρ )
 A dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio
of its density or specific weight to other substance
 Mass density
 The mass of the fluid that is contained in a unit of
volume
FORMULA:
ρf γ f
Sf = =
FORMULA: ρs γ s

m Note:
ρ=
V N lb
Solids and Liquids (Water)  γ w =9810 3
=62.4 3
m ft
N lb
For water, Gases (Air)  γ a=12 3
=0.076 3
m ft
 FLUID MECHANICS
1 atm = 14.7 psi= 101.3 kPa= 29.9 in. Hg= 760 mm Hg TYPES OF FLUIDS

1. IDEAL OR INVISCID FLUIDS

 Assumed to have very low or no viscosity (and
hence, no resistance to shear)
 Incompressible (Ideal fluid)
 Have uniform velocity when flowing
 No friction between moving layers of fluid
 No eddy currents or turbulence

2. REAL FLUIDS
Viscosity ( μ)  Exhibit infinite viscosities
 Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
 Compressible
 Property of a fluid which determines the amount of
 Experience friction and turbulence in flow
its resistance to shearing stress
 A perfect fluid would have no viscosity 2a. NEWTONIAN FLUIDS – fluids that obey Newton’s
 The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
dy
temperature, whereas the viscosity of gases increases Law of Viscosity; μ=τ
with it dv
2b. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS – fluids whose very thin
layers exhibit a nonlinear behavior between the applied
FORMULA: shear stress and the shear-strain rate.
dδ
tan dα= =dα a. Dilatant Fluids - fluids that have an increase in
dy
apparent viscosity (slope) with an increase in shear stress
dv (dt )   are referred to as shear-thickening or dilatant fluids
=dα
dy
dv   dα   Ex. water with high concentrations of sugar, and quicksand
= b. Pseudo-plastic Fluids - fluids that exhibit the opposite
dy dt
behavior and are called shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic
fluids.
μ Ex. blood, gelatin, and milk. These substances flow slowly at
 absolute or dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity low applications of shear stress (large slope), but rapidly under
a higher shear stress (smaller slope)
 the constant of proportionality that measures the resistance
to fluid movement
Kinematic Viscosity (v)
N ∙s dyne ∙ s
1 poise=0.1 2 =1 2  the ratio of dynamic viscosity to its mass density
m cm
m2
 1 stoke=0.0001
s
NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY
FORMULA:
 The shear stress in a fluid is directly proportional to μ
the shear strain rate or velocity gradient ν=
ρ
 proposed by Isaac Newton

FORMULA: VISCOSITY
dv
τ =μ
dy MEASUREMENT
Description
Rotational Brookfield viscometer
 FLUID MECHANICS
Free – surface energy
- Consists of a solid cylinder that
is suspended within a cylindrical  the energy produced by the work of separating the
container, the liquid to be tested molecules and thus breaking the surface tension on
fills the small space between the surface of a liquid
these two cylinders, and as the
Viscometer
container is forced to rotate with
a very slow constant angular [W =F ( d ) cos θ ]
velocity, it causes the contained
W =σ ( ∆ y ) ( δ x ) ( 1 )
cylinder to twist the suspension
wire a small amount before it σ (∆ y) ( δ x )
attains equilibrium W / ∆ A=
(∆ y ) ( δ x )
Invented by W. Ostwald
W /∆ A=σ
- Determines viscosity by
measuring the time for a liquid to
flow through the short, small
Ostwald Viscometer diameter tube, and then
correlating this time with the time
for another liquid of known
viscosity to flow through this Pressure inside a droplet of liquid
same tube

( )
2
d 4σ
σπd= pπ p=
4 d
Vapor Pressure ( pv )

Capillary Rise (h )
 The pressure exerted by a vapor within a closed space

 Capillarity
 the rise or fall of liquid surface (meniscus) inside a
relatively small tube due to adhesion of the liquid to
the surrounding wall or due to cohesion of the
molecules of the liquid

FORMULA:
4 σ cos θ
h=
γd

Surface Tension (σ )

 the tensile force per unit length in any direction along

the surface of a liquid that is required to separate the
molecules at the surface or can also be thought of as
the amount of free-surface energy required to
increase a unit surface area of a liquid

FORMULA:
∆F
σ=
∆L
 FLUID MECHANICS
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity ( E B)  The absolute pressure in a gas is directly
proportional with its density and its absolute
temperature
 Bulk Modulus
 A gas is assumed to have enough separation between
 a measure of the amount by which a fluid offers a
its molecules so that the molecules have no attraction
resistance to compression
to one another. Also, the gas must not be near the
point of condensation into either a liquid or a solid
FORMULA: state
stress −dp
E B= =
strain dV / V i FORMULA:
p|¿|= ρR T
|¿|¿ ¿

Compressibility ( β )

 Coefficient of Compressibility
R- gas constant,
 the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit universal gas constant R0
R= =
change in pressure in a constant temperature process molar weight Mg

FORMULA: p|¿|
¿ V s=
1 p|¿|V s
¿
1 −dV /V ρT |¿|=R ¿ ρ T|¿|=R ¿
β= =
EB dp
p|1|V s 1 p|2|V s 2
=
T |1| T |2|
Pressure Disturbances
Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions
 imposed on a fluid move in waves.  no heat exchange between the gas and its container
 The velocity or celerity or acoustical or sonic velocity
of pressure wave k−1 k−1
k
pi V i = pf V f
k pi k pf k
=
FORMULA: Ti Tf

c=
√ EB
ρ
k - adiabatic exponent, ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant volume

BOYLE’S LAW
 contains remnant cytoplasmic ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and organelles such as the mitochondria and  According to Robert Boyle, at constant temperature,
ribosomes; decreasing the volume of a container of gas causes
 used to assess the erythropoietic activity of the the pressure to increase proportionately (isothermal
bone marrow condition)
 Principle: Whole blood stained with supravital stain  the pressure of a given amount of gas is inversely
(New Methylene Blue). Any non-nucleated RBC that proportional to its volume if temperature is held
contains two or more particles of blue-stained constant
granulo-filamentous material after new methylene
blue staining is called reticulocytes FORMULA:
1
p∝
IDEAL GAS LAW V

1 pV =k pi V i= pf V f
p=k
V
 FLUID MECHANICS
Another:

CHARLES’ LAW
 Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law
 Jacques Charles and later Joseph Gay-Lussac
studied the effect of temperature on the volume of a
gas. Their studies showed that, at constant pressure,
increasing the temperature of a gas increases the
volume occupied by the gas
 the volume of any sample of a gas varies directly
with the temperature if the pressure is held
constant

FORMULA:
V ∝T

V Vi V f
Another: V =kT =k =
T Ti Tf

AMONTON’S LAW
 at constant volume, the pressure of a gas confined in
a container increase when the absolute temperature
increases.
 the pressure of a gas varies directly with the
temperature if the volume is held constant

FORMULA:
p ∝T

p pi pf
Another: p=kT =k =
T Ti T f