Sociology and the Other Sciences

• The Natural Sciences

• Explain and Predict Events in Natural Environment
• The Social Sciences
• Examine Human Relationships
• Divided into specialized fields based on their subject matter

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Sociology and the Other Sciences
• Anthropology
• Studies Culture
• Economics
• Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Services
• Political Science
• Studies How People Govern Themselves

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The Goal of Science
• Explain Why Something Happens
• Make Generalizations
• Look for Patterns
• Predict What will Happen
• Move Beyond Common Sense

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Auguste Comte and Positivism
• Applying the Scientific Method to Social World
• Comte began to wonder what holds society together
• Coined the Term “Sociology”
• “Armchair Philosophy”

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Herbert Spencer - Social Darwinism
• Second Founder of Sociology
• Disagreed sharply with Comte’s idea that sociologists should guide
social reform
• Lower and Higher Forms of Society
• Coined Phrase “Survival of the Fittest”
• Spencer’s idea that it was wrong to help the poor offended many

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Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic
• Religion and the Origin of Capitalism
• Disagreed with Marx’s claim that economics is the central force in social
change
• Said that role belongs to religion
• Religion is Central Force in Social Change
• Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism

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Theoretical Perspectives
• Basic Sociology
• Symbolic Interactionism
• How People Use Symbols in Everyday Life
• Applying Symbolic Interactionism
• Changing meaning of symbols affects expectations
• Public Sociology/ Applied
• Social Reform is risky

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What is Culture?
• Language, Beliefs, Values, Norms-rules
• Behavior Passed from One Generation to the Next
• Material vs. Nonmaterial Cultures
• Patterns of behavior
• Language, gestures, and other forms of interaction

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Components of Symbolic Culture
• Gestures
• Conveying Messages without Words
• Gestures’ Meaning Differ Among Cultures
• Can Lead to Misunderstandings
• Is it really true that there are no universal gestures?

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Values, Norms, and Sanctions
• Values - What is Desirable in Life
• Norms - Expectations or Rules for Behavior
• Sanctions - Reaction to Following or Breaking Norms
• Positive & Negative Sanctions
• Moral Holidays and Places

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Socialization into the Self and Mind
• We Imagine How We Appear to Those Around Us
• We Interpret Others’ Reactions
• We Develop a Self-Concept
• Cooley and the Looking Glass Self
• Imitation, Play, Team Games

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Socialization into the Self and Mind
• Sensorimotor Stage 0-2yrs, touching
• Preoperational Stage 2-7 yrs symbols
• Concrete Operational Stage 7-12yrs reasoning
• Formal Operational Stage 12 yrs young philosophers
• Global Aspects of Self and Reasoning
• Piaget and the Development of Reasoning

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Agents of Socialization
• family
• The School
• Manifest Function formal books
• Latent Functions informal discipline, moral
• The Workplace maturity to handle situations
• Resocialization
• Total Institutions

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A Research Model
• Selecting a Topic
• Defining a Problem
• Reviewing the Literature
• Formulating a Hypothesis

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A Research Model
• Choosing a Research Method
• Collecting Data
• Analyzing Results
• Sharing Results

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Research Methods
• Interviews
• More Researcher Control
• Time Consuming
• Interviewer Bias
• Structured Interviews mcq
• Unstructured Interviews
• Establishing Rapport

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Research Methods
• Participant Observation fieldwork
• Researcher Participates
• Problems with Generalizability
• Done for Exploratory Work
• Generates Hypotheses

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Deciding Which Method to Use
• Quantitative Research Methods
• Emphasis on Precise Measurement
• Uses Statistics and Numbers
• Qualitative Research Methods
• Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and Interpreting Behavior
• Controversy in Sociological Research

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Formal Organizations and Bureaucracy
• Characteristics of Bureaucracies
• Clear Levels
• Division of Labor
• Written Rules
• Written Communication and Records
• Impersonality & Replaceability

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Dysfunctions of Bureaucracies
• Red Tape - A Rule is a Rule
• Lack of Communication Between Units
• Bureaucratic Alienation
• Resisting Alienation
• The Alienated Bureaucrat- Quit
• Bureaucratic Incompetence

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Deviance Terminology
• Crime
• Violation of Norms as Laws
• Deviance
• Violation of Rules or Norms
• Stigma
• Blemishes on “Normal” Identity

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Control
Theory
• The Theory
• Applying Control Theory
• Inner Controls
• Morality
• Conscience
• Religious Principles

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Control
Theory
• Outer Controls
• Attachments
• Commitments
• Involvements
• Beliefs that Actions are Morally Wrong

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspective:
Differential Association Theory
• The Theory
• Families
• Friends
• Neighbors
• Subcultures
• Prison or Freedom?

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Functionalist Perspective: Illegitimate
Opportunity Structures
• Social Class Produces Distinct Styles of Crime
• Street Crime
• White-Collar Crime
• Corporations as Criminals
• Gender and Crime

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Systems of Social Stratification - Slavery
• Causes
• Conditions
• Temporary
• Not Necessarily: Inheritable, Powerless, Poor
• Bonded Labor in the New World
• Slavery in the New World
• Slavery Today

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Systems of Social Stratification - Caste
• India’s Religious Castes
• South Africa
• Europeans of Dutch descent used to control the government, the police, and
the military
• U.S. Racial Caste System
• From the moment of birth, race marked everyone for life

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Systems of Social Stratification - Estate
• Three Estates
• Nobility - landlords
• Clergy – religious head
• Serfs – common
• Women in the Estate System

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Systems of Social Stratification - Class
• Class System
• Based on Money and Material Possessions
• Relatively Fluid
• Social Mobility

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Global Stratification: Three Worlds
• The Most Industrialized Nations Developed countries
• The Industrializing Nations developing
• The Least Industrialized Nations underdeveloped
• Modifying the Model
• Oil-rich nations of the Middle East
• Kuwait is an excellent example

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The Development of Modern Education
• Education in Earlier Societies
• Education Consisted of Informal Learning
• Education was Equivalent to Acculturation learning a culture
• Education is a Group’s Formal System of Teaching

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The Development of Modern Education
• Industrialization and Universal Education
• Jefferson & Webster Propose Universal School
• Uniform National Culture Through Education
• Rich Educated, Poor Not
• Horace Mann Proposed “Common Schools”
• By 1918, All States had Mandatory Education

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The Development of Modern Education
• Education in Japan- developed
• Emphasis on Solidarity Within Group
• Discourages Competition among Individuals
• Education in Russia- developing
• Education, including College, was Free
• Post-Soviet Russia is Reinventing Education

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Functionalist Perspective: Providing Social
Benefits
• Teaching Knowledge and Skills
• Cultural Transmission of Values
• Social Integration
• Gatekeeping-open/closes lot of opportunities
• Replacing Family Functions
• Other Functions
• Surprising Latent Functions

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspective:
Fulfilling Teacher Expectations
• The Rist Research
• Rist: each child’s journey through school was determined by the eighth day of
kindergarten!
• Average, slow, fast learner
• The Rosenthal-Jacobson Experiment
• How Do Teacher Expectations Work?
• How teacher expectations affect grades

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Population in Global Perspective
• No Space for Enjoying Life?
• The New Malthusians
• The Anti-Malthusians
• Who Is Correct?
• Exponential Growth Curve

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Population in Global Perspective
• Why Are People Starving?
• Now More Food Per Person Produced
• Starvation Occurs in Particular Places
• Droughts- climatic
• Wars- political

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Population Growth
• Basic Demographic Equation
• Growth Rate=Births - Deaths + Net Migration
• Social Factors Complicate
• Example of China
• Industrialization

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Urbanization
• The Development of Cities
• The Process of Urbanization
• Metropolises
• Megalopolises
• Megacities -10 million
• U.S. Urban Patterns
• From Country to City

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Models of Urban Growth
• The Concentric Zone Model
• The Sector Model
• The Multiple-Nuclei Model
• The Peripheral Model

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City Life
• Who Lives in the City?
• The Cosmopolites- intellectual, elite
• The Singles- 20/30
• The Ethnic Villagers-working class
• The Deprived- destitute
• The Trapped
• Critique- plain folks

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How Social Change Transforms Social Life
• Four Social Revolutions
• From Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft
• The Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
• Max Weber traced capitalism to the Protestant Reformation
• Social Movements

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How Social Change Transforms Social Life
• Conflict, Power, and Global Politics
• A Brief History of Geopolitics
• G-7 Plus
• Dividing up the World
• Two Threats to Coalition
• Africa Connections

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Theories and Processes of Social Change
• Evolution from Lower to Higher
• Unilinear
• Multilinear
• Cultural Progress
• Natural Cycles
• Conflict Over Power

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Theories and Processes of Social Change
• Ogburn’s Theory
• Invention
• Discovery
• Diffusion
• Cultural Lag

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The Growth Machine vs. The Earth
• Environmental Problems in the Most Industrialized Nations
• Toxic Wastes
• Fossil Fuels and Global Warming
• Acid Rain
• Greenhouse Effect
• Global Warming

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