Principles of Transport Phenomena

(MME0301)

Fall-2020 1
 References

• Çengel, Y.A., Cimbala, J.M., Fluid Mechanics, 3rd. Ed. McGraw Hill Education, 2014.

• Iguchi, M., Ilegbusi, O.J., Basic Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering,

Springer Japan, 2014.

• Brodkey, R. S., Hershey, H. C., Transport Phenomena: A unified approach (Vol. 2).
Brodkey publishing, 2003.

• Poirier, D. R., Geiger, G. (Eds.), Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing.

Springer, 2016.

• Geiger, G. H., Poirier, D. R., Transport Phenomena in Metallurgy, Addison-Wesley

Publishing Co., 1973.

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Conversion Factors

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Transport Phenomena

Transport phenomena, involving fluid flow, heat transfer, and mass transfer, play a
key role in the improvement of many materials processing operations

Examples include gas-stirred ladles and reactors, blast furnaces, excess carbon
dioxide removal for an environmentally friendly steelmaking process, the
floatation process, fuel cells, micro reactors, and the like..

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The system could be single or multiphase, turbulent or laminar, steady or unsteady,
or coupled involving concurrent multiple phenomena, and may cut across
dimensional scales

For example, a multiphase system may comprise continuous and dispersed phases
with interphase transport of momentum, energy, and mass superimposed on the
intraphase phenomena

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Understanding the detailed transport phenomena in the reactor of materials
processes based on experimentation alone is difficult at present for the following
reasons:

•the opacity of the material such as molten metals;

•the high temperature of the molten material such as steel at 1600 °C;
• the complexity of turbulent flows where they occur;
• coupled heat and mass transfer in many cases;
• chemical reactions in certain situations

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Momentum Transfer In Single-Phase Flows

• Basic Properties of Fluid Flow

• Momentum Transfer

• Special Topics in Fluid Mechanics

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Basic Properties of Fluid Flow
• Basic Properties of Fluid Flow

 The real fluids can be classified into Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

 Detailed explanation is given on the basic properties of Newtonian fluids such as air, water, gasoline, oils, and molten metal

 The properties include the density, compressibility, and viscosity

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• Basic Properties of Fluid Flow (Fluid Definition and Some Properties)

Defination of a Fluid
ʺA fluid (gases, liquids) is a substance that
deforms continuously when subjected to a
shear stress, no matter how small that shear
stress may beʺ

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 Defination of a Fluid (continued)

A fluid is regarded as a continuum under most conditions, implying that it is not

necessary to consider the motions of individual molecules

Kn: Knudsen* number

λm (m): mean free path of molecules
L (m): representative length

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*Knudsen, Martin (1871-1949) Danish physicist who helped develop the kinetic theory of gases
Density
The density of a fluid ρ is defined as its mass per unit volume. The unit of density
is (kg/m3). The reciprocal of the density is called the specific volume, vs (m3/kg).

Pressure
The absolute pressure of a fluid p is defined as
a force per unit area. The unit of pressure is
Pascal (Pa) or (N/m2).

F: force perpendicular to the surface

A: surface area
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Pressure (continued)
It is often convenient in practical applications to measure the difference between
the absolute pressure, p, and the atmospheric pressure, p0. This pressure
difference is called the gauge pressure, pg. The relationship among the three
pressures can be expressed by:

p0 = 101.3 kPa at 273 K

Temperature
The common units of temperature are Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), and Fahrenheit (°F)
The units are related thus:

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Exercise-1

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Exercise-2

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Solution

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Exercise-3

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Solution

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• Compressibility

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, K

The compressibility of a perfect gas is described by the perfect-gas law:

R: Gas constant (N m/kg K)

The compressibility of a liquid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity, K (the

unit of K, (Pa), is the same as that of pressure, p), thus:

dp: pressure increase

-dV: volume decrease
V: initial volume 23
Exercise-4

Solution

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 Speed of Sound
The speed of sound, c (m/s), in a fluid is closely associated with the
compressibility of the fluid

Water is more difficult to compress than air, and the speed of sound in water
(approximately 1,500 m/s) is much higher than that in air (approximately 340 m/s)

Mach Number
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and other systems that involve high-speed
gas flows, the flow speed is often expressed in terms of the dimensionless Mach
number defined as:

M = 1, sonic
M < 1, subsonic
M > 1, supersonic Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if the density
M >> 1, hypersonic changes are under about 5 percent, which is usually the case when M < 0.3

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 • Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Dynamic Viscosity
A liquid fills the spacing between the cylinders and the outer cylinder is rotated
around its axis at a constant rotation velocity of V. The force required to rotate
the vessel, F, is expressed by:
(1)

(2)
shear stress - (N/m ) 2

(3)
Newton’s law of viscosity

A: surface area of the inner wall of the outer cylinder

L: clearance between the two cylinders
μ: constant proportionality, dynamic viscosity
y: measured from the outer wall towards the centerline of the cylinders

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 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
The study of the deformation of flowing fluids is called rheology.
Newtonian fluid
- fluids for which the shear stress is linearly
proportional to the shear strain rate
Examples: air, water, oil, and molten metal

Non-Newtonian fluid
- does not obey Newton’s law of viscosity
Examples: blood, semisolid slurries, colloidal
solutions, paste, and cake batter

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Some non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a “memory”—
the shear stress depends not only on the local
strain rate, but also on its history

Namely, a fluid that returns (either fully or partially) to

its original shape after the applied stress is released
is called viscoelastic (both viscous and elastic nature)

Viscoelastic fluids are also considered to be shear

thinning

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• Surface Energy
Surface Tension and Contact Angle
It is often observed that,
- a d ro p of blo od forms a hump
on a horizon ta l glass
- a d ro p of me rcury forms a near-perfect
sphe re and ca n be rolled ju st like a steel ba ll
o ver a smooth su rface
- water droplets fro m ra in or de w hang from
b ra nches or le aves of tre es
- a liqu id fu el injected into an engine fo rms
a mist o f spherica l dro ple ts
- a so ap bubb le released into the air fo rms
a sp herical shape
- water be ads up into sma ll drops on flower petals

In these and other observances, liquid

droplets behave like small spherical
balloons filled with the liquid, and the
surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane under
tension
The pulling force that causes this
tension acts parallel to the surface and
is due to the attractive forces between
the molecules of the liquid

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Surface Tension and Contact Angle (continued)
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension, σs, and
is usually expressed in the unit N/m, and this effect is also called surface
energy and is expressed in the equivalent unit of N.m/m2 or J/m2

The surface tension varies greatly

from substance to substance, and
with temperature for a given
substance, as shown in Table

The surface tension of a substance

can be changed considerably by
impurities, therefore, certain
chemicals, called surfactants, can
be added to a liquid to decrease its
surface tension

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Surface Tension and Contact Angle (continued)

The wettability of a liquid droplet placed on a solid plate is quantitatively described

by the contact angle, θc

A solid is wetted by a liquid for 0° ≤ θc ≤ 90° and poorly wetted for 90° ≤ θc ≤ 180°
The refractory used in the steelmaking processes is typically poorly wetted by
molten steel. The contact angle, θc, ranges approximately from 130 to 150° in order
to avoid contamination of the molten steel from undesirable metallurgical reactions
with the refractory

In the case of a gas, when the Knudsen number (Kn) is less than 1/5, the gas
velocity on the surface of a solid body is regarded as being equal to the velocity
of the body

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Capillary Effect
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary effect, which is the
rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid
 Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries

 The rise of kerosene

through a cotton wick
inserted into the reservoir
of a kerosene lamp is due
to this effect

 The curved free surface of

a liquid in a capillary tube
is called the meniscus

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Capillary Effect (continued)

The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or wetting) angle Φ,
defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface
at the point of contact, and the surface tension force acts along this tangent line
toward the solid surface

A liquid is said to wet the surface when Φ < 90° and not to wet the surface when
Φ > 90°

In atmospheric air, the contact angle of water (and most other organic liquids)
with glass is nearly zero, Φ ≈ 0°

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Exercise-5

Solution

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