Welcome

Introduction To Process Instrumentations

Department of IAC, Lean Institute of Technology
Course: IIPIAC-1909
Instructor: Fahim Shah
https://www.lit.leanautomation.com/Courses/IIPIAC

01/08/2022 © Lean Institute of Technology BAT-01 PGDIAC-1909

 Module Objective
• This course is not intended to be an encyclopedia of instrumentation and
control valves, but rather a training guide for gaining experience in this
fast changing environment

• It is designed to give students the fundamentals on analysing the process

requirements and selecting suitable solutions for their applications.

01/08/2022 © Lean Institute of Technology PGDIAC-1909

 Today Topics
• Principles of pressure management
• Pressure sources
• Pressure transducers and elements – mechanical
• Pressure transducers and elements – electrical
• Installation considerations
• Impact on the overall control loop
• Selection tables
• Future technologies
 Principles of Pressure Management

Bar and Pascal

Absolute, Gauge and Differential Pressure
Pressure Sources
Total Pressure
Bar and
Pascal
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area, and can be measured
in units such as
1. PSI(pounds per square inch)
2. inches of water in. H2o
3. millimeters of mercury mmHg
4. pascals (Pa, or N/m²) or bar

Until the introduction of SI units, the 'bar' was quite common

The bar is equivalent to 100,000 N/m², which were the SI units
for measurement
Absolute, Gauge and Differential Pressure
When the pressure is measured in reference to an absolute vacuum (no atmospheric
conditions), then the result will be in Pascal (Absolute).
when the pressure is measured relative to the atmospheric pressure, then the result
will be termed Pascal (Gauge).
If the gauge is used to measure the difference between two pressures, it then becomes
Pascal (Differential).
It is common practice to show gauge pressure without specifying the type, and to
specify absolute or differential by stating 'absolute' or 'differential' for those
pressures.
Older measurement equipment may be in terms of psi (pounds per square inch) and
as such represent gauge and absolute pressure as psig and psia respectively. Note that
the ‘g’ and ‘a’ are not recognized in the SI unit symbols, and as such are no longer
encouraged.
Pressure Unit Conversion
Factors
 Pressure Sources
Static Pressure

In the atmosphere at any point, static pressure is exerted equally in all directions.
Static pressure is the result of the weight of all the air molecules above that point
pressing down.

Static pressure does not involve the relative movement of the air.
Pressure Sources
Dynamic Pressure
Quite simply, if you hold your hand up in a strong wind or out of the window of a
moving car, then the extra wind pressure is felt due to the air impacting your hand.
The dynamic pressure is due to relative movement. Dynamic pressure occurs when a
body is moving through the air, or the air is flowing
past the body.
Dynamic pressure is dependent on two factors:
1. The speed of the body relative to the flow stream. The faster the car moves or
the stronger the wind blows, then the stronger the dynamic pressure that you
feel on your hand. This is because of the greater number of air molecules that
impact upon it per second
2. The density of the air. The dynamic pressure depends also on the density of
the air. If the flowrate was the same, and the air was less dense, then there
would be less force and consequently a lower dynamic pressure
Pressure Sources
Total Pressure
Total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic
pressure.
Total pressure is also known and referred to as impact pressure,
pitot pressure or even ram pressure.
Applications

In many ways, pressure is the primary variable for a wide range

of process measurements. Many types of industrial
measurements are actually inferred from pressure, such as:
• Flow (measuring the pressure dropped across a restriction)
• Liquid level (measuring the pressure created by a vertical
liquid column)
• Liquid density (measuring the pressure difference across a
fixed-height liquid column)
• Weight (hydraulic load cell)
Pressure transducers and elements -
Mechanical

Bourdon tube
Helix and spiral tubes
Spring and bellows
Diaphragm
Manometer
Manometers
A very simple device used to measure pressure is the
manometer:

A fluid-filled tube where an applied gas pressure causes the

fluid height to shift proportionately.

This is why pressure is often measured in units of liquid height

(e.g. inches of water, inches of mercury)

Manometers come in a variety of forms, the most common

being the U-tube, well (sometimes called a cistern), raised well,
and inclined:
Manometers
 C-Bourdon Tube
The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that a bent tube
will change its shape when exposed to variations of internal and
external pressure
As pressure is applied internally, the tube straightens and
returns to its original form when the pressure is released.

The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change
and is easily converted with a pointer onto a scale. A
connector link is used to transfer the tip movement to
the geared movement sector. The pointer is rotated hrough
a toothed pinion by the geared sector.
C-Burdon Tube Animations
Helix and Spiral
Tubes
Helix and spiral tubes are fabricated from tubing into shapes as
per their naming. With one end sealed, the pressure exerted on
the tube causes the tube to straighten out. The amount of
straightening or uncoiling is determined by the pressure applied
These two approaches use the Bourdon principle. The uncoiling
part of the tube is mechanically linked to a pointer which
indicates the applied pressure on a scale. This has the added
advantage over the C-Bourdon tube as there are no movement
losses due to links and levers.
The Spiral tube is suitable for pressure ranges up to 28,000 kPa
and the Helical tube for ranges up to 500,000 kPa. The pressure
sensing elements vary depending on the range of operating
pressure and type of process involved
 Spring and Bellows
A bellows is an expandable element and is made up of a series
of folds which allow expansion.
One end of the Bellows is fixed and the other moves in
response to the applied pressure. A spring is used to oppose the
applied force and a linkage connects the end of the bellows to a
pointer for indication.

This type of pressure measurement is primarily used for

ON/OFF control providing clean contacts for opening and
closing electrical circuits.
The force on the main spring is varied by turning the operating
range adjustment screw. This determines where the contacts will
trip.
The force on the secondary differential blade spring is varied by
turning the differential adjustment screw. This determines where
the contacts will reset.
Diaphragm, bellows or piston?
The process pressure is applied to the actuator which can be
either a diaphragm, bellows or piston type.
Piston controls are used for hydraulic fluids operating at high
pressures. They are not intended for use with air or water as
their accuracy is limited
Electrical Pressure Transmitter
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid
pressure into an electrical signal response.
These technologies form the basis of electronic pressure
transmitters: devices designed to measure fluid pressure and
transmit that information via electrical signals such as the 4-20
mA analog standard, or in digital form such as HART or
FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
Piezo resistive (strain gauge) sensors
Piezo resistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a
resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The strain
gauge is a classic example of a piezo resistive element.
Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the
ratio of length over cross-sectional area (R ∝ Al )
which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will increase
electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and
decreasing cross-sectional area while compressive deformation
(squishing) will decrease electrical resistance by simultaneously
decreasing length and increasing cross-sectional area.
Attaching a strain gauge to a diaphragm results in a device that
changes resistance with applied pressure. Pressure forces the
diaphragm to deform, which in turn causes the strain gauge to
change resistance. By measuring this change in resistance, we
can infer the amount of pressure applied to the diaphragm.
Piezo resistive (strain gauge) sensors
The classic strain gauge system represented in the previous
illustration is made of metal (both the test specimen and the
strain gauge itself). Within its elastic limits, many metals
exhibit good spring characteristics. Metals, however, are subject
to fatigue over repeated cycles of strain (tension and
compression), and they will begin to “flow” if strained beyond
their elastic limit. This is a common source of error in metallic
piezo resistive pressure instruments: if overpressure, they tend
to lose accuracy due to damage of the spring and strain gauge
elements
Piezo resistive (strain gauge) sensors
An example of a pressure instrument utilizing a silicon strain
gauge element is the Foxboro model IDP10 differential pressure
transmitter, shown in the following photograph:
Capacitance type Transmitter
Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on the
principle of differential capacitance. In this design, the sensing
element is a taut metal diaphragm located equidistant between
two stationary metal surfaces, forming complementary pair of
capacitances
Any difference of pressure across the cell will cause the
diaphragm to flex in the direction of least pressure.
The sensing diaphragm is a precision-manufactured spring
element, meaning that its displacement is a predictable function
of applied force.
 Capacitance type Transmitter
The applied force is a function of differential pressure acting
against the surface area of the diaphragm in accordance with the
standard force-pressure-area equation F = PA.
In this case, we have two forces caused by two fluid pressures
working against each other, so our force-pressure-area equation
may be rewritten to describe resultant force as a function of
differential pressure (P1 − P2) and diaphragm
area: F = (P1 − P2)A.
Since diaphragm area is constant, and force is predictably
related to diaphragm displacement, all we need now in order to
infer differential pressure is to accurately measure displacement
of the diaphragm.
 Capacitance type Transmitter
The diaphragm’s secondary function as one plate of two
capacitors provides a convenient method for measuring
displacement. Since capacitance between conductors is
inversely proportional to the distance separating them,
capacitance on the low-pressure side will increase while
capacitance on the high-pressure side will decrease:
A capacitance detector circuit connected to this cell uses a high-
frequency AC excitation signal to measure the different in
capacitance between the two halves, translating that into a DC
signal which ultimately becomes the signal output by the
instrument representing pressure.
Capacitance type Transmitter
These pressure sensors are highly accurate, stable, and rugged.
The solid frame bounds the motion of the two isolating
diaphragms such that the sensing diaphragm cannot move past
its elastic limit. This gives the differential capacitance excellent
resistance to overpressure damage.
A classic example of a pressure instrument based on the
differential capacitance sensor is the Rosemount model 1151
differential pressure transmitter, shown in assembled form in the
following
photograph:
Capacitance type Transmitter
Capacitance type Transmitter
A more modern realization of the differential capacitance
pressure-sensing principle is the Rosemount model 3051
differential pressure transmitter:

As is the case for all differential pressure devices, this

instrument has two ports through which fluid pressure may be
applied to the sensor. The sensor, in turn, responds only to the
difference in pressure between the ports.
Resonant element sensors
As any guitarist, violinist, or other stringed-instrument musician
can tell you, the natural frequency of a tensed string increases
with tension. This, in fact, is how stringed instruments are
tuned, the tension on each string is precisely adjusted to achieve
the desired resonant frequency. Mathematically, the resonant
frequency of a string may be described by the following
formula:

Where,
f = Fundamental resonant frequency of string (Hertz)
L = String length (meters)
FT = String tension (newtons)
µ = Unit mass of string (kilograms per meter)
Resonant element sensors
It stands to reason, then, that a string may serve as a force
sensor. All that is needed to complete the sensor is an oscillator
circuit to keep the string vibrating at its resonant frequency, and
that frequency becomes an indication of tension (force). If the
force stems from pressure applied to some sensing element such
as a bellows or diaphragm, the string’s resonant frequency will
indicate fluid pressure.
Resonant element sensors
The Foxboro company pioneered this concept in an early
resonant wire design of pressure transmitter. Later, the
Yokogawa corporation of Japan applied the concept to a pair of
micromachined5 silicon resonator structures, which became the
basis for their successful line of “DPharp”
pressure transmitters.
Mechanical adaptations
Most modern electronic pressure sensors convert very small diaphragm motions into
electrical signals through the use of sensitive motion-sensing techniques (strain gauge
sensors, differential capacitance cells, etc.).

Diaphragms made from elastic materials behave as springs, but circular diaphragms
exhibit very nonlinear behavior.
Therefore, in order to yield a linear response to pressure, a diaphragm-based pressure
sensor must be designed in such a way that the diaphragm stretches very little over
the normal range of operation

An alternative approach to electronic pressure measurement is to use mechanical

pressure sensing elements with more linear pressure-displacement characteristics –
such as bourdon tubes and spring-loaded bellows .

then detect the large-scale motion of the pressure element using a less-sophisticated
electrical motion-sensing device such as a potentiometer, LVDT, or Hall Effect
sensor.
Mechanical adaptations
The following photographs show front and rear views of an electronic pressure transmitter
using a large C-shaped bourdon tube as the sensing element (seen in the left-hand photograph)

This alternative approach is undeniably simpler and less expensive to manufacture than the
more sophisticated approaches used with diaphragm-based pressure instruments, but is prone
to greater inaccuracies
Even bourdon tubes and bellows are not perfectly linear spring elements, and the substantial
motions involved with using such pressure elements introduces the possibility of hysteresis
errors