Evaporation

Evaporation
Evaporation is the removal of a solvent from a solution by
vaporization, This term is restricted to the concentration of
solution by boiling.
What is the difference between evaporation and drying??

Evaporation Drying
Homogenous mixture Heterogenous mixture

Liquid-vapour separation Solid-gas or liquid gas

Removal of large amount of
water
separation occurs by ebullition
separation
Removal of small amount of
water
Separation occurs by vapor
pressure gradient
• Factors affecting evaporation rate:
1.Heat transfer area:
heat transfer area the evaporation rate
2. Temperature difference:
a- solute concentration vapour reassure boiling point
rises rate of evaporation

b- pressure above the liquid boiling point rate of

evaporation (benefit for thermolabile liquids)

c- hydrostatic head.
3. Viscosity of solution:
4. Scaling, Salting and Fouling:
Scaling: deposition of the solid whose solubility
decreased with increasing temperature on heating surface.
Overall heat transfer coefficient was diminished.
e.g. magnesium and calcium sulphate.
The manipulation: mechanical removal.
Salting: solubility increasers with increasing temperature
but deposited on the cooler wall of the tube.
The manipulation: excess solvent or less saturated solution.
Fouling: deposition of dirt carried by dilute solution or
decomposed product of heat-sensitive organic such as
coagulable proteins
The manipulation: by filtration of solution before
concentration.
 EQUIPMENTS
The equipment used in evaporation may be classified
conveniently according to the form of the movement, as this is
very important in heat transfer, and can be divided into three
main groups :
A. NATURAL CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS.
B. FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS.
C. FILM EVAPORATORS.
A. NATURAL CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS
 Evaporators in this category are those in which the movement of the
liquid results from convection currents set up by the heating
process
1. Evaporating Pans:
 This HEMISPHERICAL SHAPE consists of an inner pan called the
liner, partially enveloped with an outer pan called the jacket. The two
are joined together so as to enclose a space through which steam is
passed. In the construction of a steam pan, the ideal to be aimed at
are:
A. Great conductivity of the liner, so that the maximum amount of heat
passes from the steam to the contents of the liner, and
B. Minimum conductivity of the jacket to prevent loss of heat by
conduction and radiation. For these reasons, copper is an excellent
material for the liner, and iron for the jacket. To prevent rusting of
the latter, the iron is either tinned or enameled on the inner surface.
If acid preparation are to be evaporated in the pan, tinned
copper are preferably stainless steel may be used for the liner
 Evaporating pan

Steam
Air vent

Steam jacket

Condensate
Outlet

Product Outlet
Disadvantages of evaporating pans
1. Having only natural convection circulation,
a. the overall coefficient of heat transfer will be poor and
b. solids are likely to deposit on the surface, leading to decomposition of
the product and a further deterioration in heat transfer.
c. Also, many products give rise to foaming when boiled under conditions
of natural convection .
2. All the liquor is heated all the time so, not suitable for thermolabile
materials .
3. The heating surface is limited which is continuously decreased during
operation.
4. The pan is open, so that vapor passes to the atmosphere, which can lead to
saturation of the atmosphere,
a. slowing evaporation.
b. causing discomfort. Further more,
c. it limits the evaporating pan to use with aqueous liquids only.
d. The open design means also that reduced pressure cannot be used, so that
the temperature of boiling cannot be lowered .
 Uses of evaporating pans

• The evaporating pan can be used only for concentration of

aqueous and thermostable liquors. For example, extract of
liquorice.
Since many pharmaceutical materials are thermolabile or
dissolve in organic solvents, such as alcohol, the
evaporating pan is limited in application .
2. EVAPORATING STILL :
 It is essentially CYLINDIRICAL SHAPE a vessel similar to
the evaporating pan, with a cover that connects it to a
condenser, so that the liquid is distilled off.

Typical construction, a quick release system of clamps may be

used to allow the cover to be removed easily for access to the
interior of the vessel for product removal or for cleaning
purposes .
 Evaporating Still

Condenser

Steam

Product Outlet Condensate

Advantages

1. Like the evaporating pan, it is quite simple to construct and

easy to clean and maintain .

2. The vapor is condensed which speeds evaporation, reduces

inconvenience and allows the equipment to be used for solvents
other than water.

3. A receiver and vacuum pump can be fitted to the condenser ,

permitting operation under reduced and, hence, at lower
temperatures. SO, rate of evaporation increased.
 Disadvantages
1. Natural convection only.

2. All the liquor is heated all the times.

3. The heating surface is limited.

3. SHORT-TUBE EVAPORATORS

This group may be subdivided according to whether the tubes

are horizontal ( with the steam inside ), or vertical ( with the
steam outside ) .

A. Horizontal tube evaporator:

The usual type of horizontal evaporator is known in the figure.
The body of this evaporator is in the form of a vertical
cylinder. closed at the top and bottom, with dished heads.

Steam is admitted through series of horizontal tubes situated at

a low point of the evaporator, thus allowing a good column
above the liquid to reduce entrainments.
• The horizontal tubes are connecting to two steam
compartments, one at each side of the casing. Steam is
introduced into one steam compartment at A, and as it flows
through the tubes and washes both non-condensed gas as well
as condensate ahead of it so that these are withdrawn from the
opposite steam compartment at vent B and drips C respectively.

• The feed liquid is introduced at any middle point in the body of

the evaporator above the tube-bundle level, say at D, and the
thick product may be collected from the center of the bottom at
point E .

• Most evaporator are provided with sight glasses such as shown

at F. The vapour from the boiling liquid escapes through the top
connection G to be suitably disposed off .
Horizontal tube evaporator
• Advantages :
1.Low initial cost .
2.Require low head space and are easy to still .
3.They can be used either as batch or as continuous evaporators. 
• Disadvantages :
1. Poor liquor circulation . (scaling) (heat transfer poor)
2. Unsuitable for viscous liquids .
3. Unsuitable for liquors that crystallize on concentration .
B. Vertical tube evaporators
This evaporator is also commonly called “short-tube evaporator”.
As shown in the figure shown, the body of the evaporator resembles
that of horizontal tube evaporator but here the heating element consists
of an annular steam compartment which contain central down-take
surrounded by multiple layer of vertical tubes having both ends open.
this heating part of the evaporator is known as "calandria".

In this case, as in the horizontal tube evaporators the liquid to be

heated is fed into the body of the evaporator. here,
1.it rises in the tubes, will be
2.heated by the surrounding steam and,
3.when sufficiently hot, boils and spouts upward out of the top of the
tubes in a manner similar to that of the liquid which is boiled
vigorously in a test tube. The spouting liquid will then return
downwards through a large central opening in the calandria called the
"down-take”.
Short Tube Evaporator
Advantages
1. The use of tubular calandria increases the heating area largely.
2. The vigorous circulation reduces the boundary layers and
scraps any solids separating from the concentrated liquid off
the heating surface inside the tubes, thus increasing the rate of
heat transfer. Thus, vertical tube evaporator is suitable for the
evaporation of viscous liquids and those liquids which will
crystallize on concentration. In fact, this type of evaporator is
often employed as an evaporative crystallizer, particularly in
the sugar industry .
3. They can be used both as batch or as continuous evaporators .
4. A condenser, receiver, and a vacuum pump can be attached
rendering operation under vacuum possible.
Disadvantages
1. Since the evaporator is filled to a point above the level of the
calandria a considerable amount of the liquor is heated for a long
time.
Manipulation: The effect of this continual heating can be reduced to
some extent by removing the concentrated liquor slowly from the
outlet at the bottom of the vessel.

2. The plant is much more complicated, making it expensive to

construct and increasing the difficulty of cleaning and maintenance

3. (Hydrostatic head) The head of the liquor increases pressure at the

bottom of the vessel and, in large evaporators where the liquor
depth may be of the orders of 2 meters, this may give rise to a
pressure of about 0.25 bar, leading to elevation of the boiling point
by 5 or 6 °C. This reduces the effective temperature gradient and
may affect heat-sensitive material .
4. Due to vigorous circulation the amount of liquid may be lost with
vapour.
B. FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS
Forced circulation Evaporators with external heating surface
• The heating surface, instead of being built as part of the
evaporator body, is an ordinary two heater entirely separate
from the evaporator body itself.

• The circulation pump takes liquid from the evaporator body,

pumps it through the heater, and return it by tangential inlet to
the main body .

• The evaporator body now becomes nothing but a flash chamber.

The tangential inlet serves to keep the whole mass of the
material in rotation, and this assist in liberating the vapor
bubbles from the liquid surface without excessive entrainments.
Forced Circulation Evaporators
• In most cases the relative elevation are so calculated that the
hydrostatic head of liquid on the heater outlet is enough to
prevent any liquid boiling in the tubes , and boiling only takes
place as the pressure is relived in discharging the liquid into the
evaporator body.

• Such evaporators are widely used for the concentration of the

materials that deposit crystalline solids on evaporation , such as
the evaporation of salt brines and the electrolytic caustic
solutions .
• Advantages:
Rapid liquid movement improve heat transfer (viscous liq,
material deposit solid or foam).
C. FILM EVAPORATORS
Climbing film evaporator
• The liquor to be evaporated is introduced into the bottom of the
tube, a film of liquid forms on the walls and rises up the tubes,
hence the title “climbing film evaporator”.
• At the upper end, the mixture of vapor and the concentrated
liquor enter a separator the vapor passing on to a condenser, and
the concentrate to a receiver.
• The fact that the film of liquid “Climbs” up the tube through a
distance of 5 or 6 meters without mechanical assistance may
seen impossible, but the explanation is given and is visualized
in figure shown .
 Vapor

Separator

Steam
Liquid Concentrate
Liquor
Inlet

Climbing film evaporator

Mechanism of work
Cold or pre-heated liquor is introduced into the tube (1). Heat
is transferred to the liquor from the walls, and boiling begins
(2), increasing in vigorous (3) and (4).
Eventually sufficient vapor has been formed for the smaller
bubbles to unite to a large bubble, filling the width of the tube
and trapping a "slug" of liquid above the bubble (5).
As more vapor is formed, the slug of liquid is formed, the slug
of liquid is blown up the tube, the tube is filled with vapor,
while the liquid is spread as a film over the walls (6).
This film continuous to vaporize rapidly, the vapor escaping up
the tube, because of friction between the vapor and liquid, the
film is also dragged up the tube.
Some idea of the speedy rate of vaporization can be gained
from the fact that the liquid travels up the tube at velocities of
the order of 6 to 7 meters/second.
 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Principles of climbing film evaporator
• It must be emphasized that this is the sole reason for the liquor
traveling up the tube, and that reduced pressure, for example,
does not affect this mechanism, although it is sometimes stated
incorrectly that the vacuum “draws” the liquid up the tube.

• While it is true that such evaporators are used commonly under

reduced pressure, the climbing film evaporator will function
equally well at atmospheric pressure.
Advantages
1. The very high film velocity reduces boundary layers to a
minimum giving improved heat transfer .
2. The use of long narrow tubes provide large area for heat
transfer.
3. Because of the increased efficiency of heat transfer, as small
temperature difference is sufficient, with less risk of damage to
thermolabile material.
4. The time of contact between the liquor and the heating
surface is very short.
Even allowing for pre-heating period, the total time a given
portion of the liquor is in the evaporator is of the order of 20
seconds, of which one second only is occupied in climbing up
the tube. When this times is compared with the hours of
continuous boiling in other evaporators, the advantages of this
method for heat-sensitive material will be realized.
5. Despite the short heating time, the evaporation rate is very
high, since the film formation gives an extremely large surface
area in relation to the volume of the liquid.

6. The mixture of the concentrated liquid and vapor enter the

cyclone separator at high velocity, which improves the
separation efficiency and makes the method especially suitable
for material that foam.

7. Although the tubes are very long, they are not submerged, as in
the short-tube evaporator, so that there is no elevation of boiling
point due to hydrostatic head .
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to clean and maintain, since replacement of the tubes
require a head room clearance of further 7 meters.

2. The feed rate is from the operational point of view, critical.

If too high, concentration will be insufficient.
If too low, the film cannot be maintained and dry batches may
form on the tube wall.

because of the rapid evaporation, minimum temperature gradient,

and short heating time this method was the perfect one for
pharmaceutical products and thermolabile products.