Respiratory system

Introduction
• One system that is very exposed to the external environment.
• The lungs, macroscopically, look solid; ideally a healthy pink colour. Not only are
the lungs there to take in oxygen, but they also act as organs of elimination and have
important regulatory functions.
Microscopically alveoli are:
• richly supplied with bloodvessels; are elastic and compliant.
• are chambers for gas exchange, and are dependent on the muscular action of the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles for expansion and contraction.
• are elastic, to respond to the action of the muscles of respiration, otherwise the lungs
will not expel air properly and this forms the basis of diseases like emphysema
 Temperaments of the main components
• The larynx – H+M - Composed mainly of epithelial and connective tissue.
Imbalance – disorders. Eg excess dryness and heat can lead to laryngitis; and excess moistness will
encourage voice problems.
• The lungs H+D – composed mainly of epithelial and connective tissue
- Contributes to the function of all faculties – generate vitality in the heart and provide support for physis.
- Supply the fuel for the metabolic faculty – representative organ – liver
- Acts as the medium of response for brain and nerves
- Main organ involved in the body’s defensive systems as it connects directly and interacts with the
external environment.
- Structural or functional weakness will compromise the body’s defences, particularly the immune system.
 Lungs cont.
• Temperament of lungs H+D and changes to these qualities will lead to specific
disorders.
• Excessive heat – inflammatory disorders such as bronchitis, rhinitis and a dry
productive cough
• A combination of excessive heat and dryness will encourage onset of TB
• Reduction in the heat quality over a period of time may lead to dev of C+D
disorders such as emphysema and fibrosing alveolitis.
• Reduction in dryness and its replacement with increasing moistness, especially if
occurring suddenly – sinusitis, colds and flu and a wet productive cough.
• Accumulation of phlegmatic humour – could also lead to the development of
emphysema, obstructive sleep apnoea and diaphragmatic insufficiency.
Hot and moist Moist and Hot Cold and Cold and Dry Dry and Hot Hot and Dry
moist

Allergic Sinusitis Diaphragmatic Pneumonia Tuberculosis Rhinitis

asthma insufficiency

Pleurisy Wet cough Emphysema Emphysema Bronchitis

Phlegmatic Colds and Flu Fibrosing Laryngitis

asthma alveolitis

Obstructive Melancholic
sleep apnoea asthma
 Lifestyle factors
Dominant feature of respiratory conditions is how readily changes are brought about.
Often immediate effects of eating and drinking different foods and drinks, of
temperature and humidity changes.
The various treatments throughout history have been the main guide in determining
therapeutic strategy.
There is a persistent tradition in many cultures that respiratory problems are
extensions of digestive functions. Embryology supports such links, with the bronchial
tree originating as a diverticulum of the pharyngeal zone of the alimentary duct and
sharing common vagal innervation, and the association, for example between asthma
and histamine H2 receptors in the stomach add further
support to such connections.
 Aim of treatments
• Keep the mucous membranes healthy
• Protect them against infection
• Prevent under or over-secretion of mucous
• To maintain elasticity of tissues
• Balance the humours
 Herbal actions required would be:

• Expectorant
• Demulcents
• Relaxants
• Antiseptics
• Anti-microbials/Anti-infectives
• Antispasmodics
• Decongestants
• Astringents
• Anti-catarrhals
• Antitussives
 Herb review
• Pimpinella anisum (Aniseed)
• Lobelia inflata (lobelia)
• Prunus serotina (wild cherry bark)
• Thymus vulgaris (Thyme)
• Adhatoda vasika (Malabar nut)
• Plantago lanceolata (plantain)
• Euphrasia officinalis (Eyebright)
• Sambucus nigra (Elderberry)
• Mentha piperita (peppermint)
• Echinacaea purpurea/augustifolia (purple coneflower)
• Capsicum frutescens/annum (cayenne, chilli pepper)
• Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)
• Pelargonium sidoides
 Expectorants
• Facilitate removal of secretions from the lungs - by rendering the consistency of the respiratory secretions
more fluid and/or more demulcent.
• Many respiratory tract disorders are characterised by abnormal mucous (catarrh) that can narrow airways
and will therefore benefit from the action of expectorants, but particularly those where the mucous is
tenacious and difficult to cough up.
• Can help relieve debilitating cough – an irritation in the airways often invokes the cough reflex. Can
therefore be anti-tussive as well.
• Stimulating (reflex) expectorants are remedies that provoke increased mucociliary activity by reflex
stimulation of the upper digestive wall – high saponin levels seem to be a common feature of this group.
Examples are Lobelia inflata and Glycyrrhiza glabra.
• Warming expectorants can be used in cold and damp climates as they counteract associated chest
problems. Eg. Zingerber officinalis(H+M), Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Foeniculum vulgare, Pimpinella
anisum(H+D), Allium sativa(H+D), Angelica archangelica (H+D), Capsicum frutescens(H4+D4) (can be
too drying in some cases).
• The effect of the pungent spices probably increases the blood flow to the respiratory mucosa and decreases
the thickness of mucous by altering the structure of its mucopolysaccharide constituents; the sensation
usually is of a clearing of catarrh and the shifting of congestion up from the lungs
Expectorants, Bronchial relaxants/spasmolytics/ anti-spasmodics
(bronchodilators, antiasthmatics), anti-tussives

Used in the display of recurrent attacks of apnoea, wheezing, tight chest and
dry, rasping cough, sometimes repetitive thoughts, expectoration of hard
sputum, a dry tongue (especially at the front) and a tight, wiry pulse. This is
typically seen in atopic asthma.
 Bronchodilators/anti-spasmodics/antitussives
• Bronchodilators are pungent, warm on the whole and often contain active essential oils, alkaloids,
saponins and glycosides.
• Respiratory spasmolytics relax the bronchioles of the lungs.
• Used for tight, breathless, non-productive coughing.
• Used for wheezing and other asthmatic symptoms.
• The gentler remedies can also be used as relaxants.
• Can be taken at any time of the day as required for immediate effect.
• Long-term therapy with respiratory spasmolytics is acceptable in the case of the gentler examples below,
but in all cases there should be attention to treatment of underlying causes rather than relying on
symptomatic aid.
• Plant remedies traditionally used as respiratory spasmolytics are: Pimpinella anisum (H+D), Hyssopus
officinalis (H+D), Thymus vulgaris (H+M), Lobelia inflata (Warm +D), Marrubium vulgare (H+D),
Glycyrrhiza glabra (H+M), Inula helenium (elecampagne), Adhatoda vasika (H+M), Prunus
serotina(C+D), Valeriana officinalis(D+H).
1.Pimpinella anisum
Unani Tibb name: Aneesun
Common names: Aniseed, Anise
Family: Umbelliferae
Parts used: Seed, essential oil
Temperament: Hot2 and Dry
Constituents: Volatile oils, coumarins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids,
carbohydrates, lipids, phytosterols. Cholin, malic acid, resins, fatty oil 30%,
flavonoid quercetin, minerals (incl. calcium, iron, zinc)
 Actions/functions and indications
1. Opens the chest and relieves wheezing; promotes expectoration and resolves phlegm
• Lung Qi constraint: dry irritating cough, wheezing, sore chest, Spasmodic asthma (esp chronic)
• Lung Phlegm- cold (C+M) – expectoration of copious white sputum, coughing, tight chest, bronchitis (chronic)
2. Regulates the Qi, relaxes constraint and relieves pain
• Palpitations, nervousness, stress, neurocardiac syndrome
• Abdominal pains, indigestion, flatulence, colic, IBS
• Menstrual cramps, difficult menstruation, spasmodic dysmenorrhoea
• Pain from gout, rheumatism, neuralgia, childbirth
3. Tonifies heart and lung Qi, and generates strength: generates fluids, promotes lactation and benefits
vision.
• Fatigue, shortness of breath, palpitations, debility from overwork, stress, chronic illness (esp bronchitis),
constitution, nicotine detox
• Insufficient breast milk, congealed breastmilk
• Insufficient sperm
• Vision impairment
 Actions/functions and indications cont .
4. Stimulates digestion, resolves mucous/phlegm and stops vomiting and hiccups.
• Gastroenteritis, colitis, nausea, vomiting, hiccups (esp severe, chronic)
5. Antidotes poison and kills parasites: animal bites, insect repellent, scabies, lice
• Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, digestive, expectorant, pectoral stimulant, galactogogue, stomachic, tonic.
Pharmacological effects: Distinct expectorant activity is linked to the ability of anethole to stimulate ciliary movement of
the bronchial epithelium.
Specific organs, tissues affected: Digestive system, lungs.
Humour affected: Phlegmatic humour
Taste: sweet
Preparation: oil, tea, tincture
• Aniseed essential oil is applied topically diluted 3-10% in a carrier oil, inhaled in nebuliser sessions or taken orally,
especially for bronchial conditions.
Dosage: Infusion: prepared with 3g of seed, crushed immediately before use. Daily dose should not exceed 5g of fruit, or
0,3g of oil.
• Tincture: 2-4ml at 1:2 strength in 45% alc
• Essential oil: 1-3 drops in a gel cap topped with some olive oil.
Safety: Safe, but should not be used in pregnancy in therapeutic doses, as it has oestrogenic properties. Oil only taken
internally under supervision.
Comments: Aniseed is an important as it is said to possess cilia-accelerator properties, i.e. it stimulates the cilia to sweet
more effectively.
 Lobelia inflata

Common name: Lobelia, indian tobacco, asthma weed

Parts used: whole plant (root, herb or fruit)
Taste: pungent, somewhat bitter
Temperament: warm with cooling potential
Constituents: 14 pyridine Alkaloids, bitter glycosides, essential oils, resin, gum, chelidonic acid,
carboxylic acid, chlorophyll, lignin, potassium, lime, ferric oxide.
Actions: anti-spasmodic, CNS stimulant, systemic relaxant, expectorant, emetic, diaphoretic,
stimulating, restoring. Depressant action on the central and autonomic nervous system and on neuro-
muscular action.
Pharmacological actions:
• Lobeline activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (similar to nicotine).
• It is a respiratory stimulant which accelerates respiratory movements by a direct action on the central
nervous system.
• It also acts as a bronchodilator and ganglionic stimulant.
• Stated to have anti-spasmodic, expectorant and emetic properties
 Functions and Indications:

1. Regulates the Qi (vital force), relaxes constraint and relieves pain; clears internal wind and stops
spasms.
• Severe, acute, stress-related conditions
• Angina pectoris, laboured breathing, panic, chest oppression and pain
• Intestinal colic, IBS, strangulated hernia – abdominal pains, constipation, nausea
• Difficult, painful urination, neurogenic bladder
• Nerve excess: tremors, spasms, hysteria, convulsions (incl. infantile), seizures from tetanus, chorea,
epilepsy, puerperal eclampsia
2. Opens the chest and relieves wheezing and coughing, promotes expectoration and resolves phlegm
• Lung Qi constraint: Chest oppression and constriction, heavy sore chest pain, wheezing, asthma
(spasmodic), croup, whooping cough, pleurisy, cardiac asthma, asthmatic seizure, pneumonia (acute)
• Lung phlegm (C+M): cough, expectoration of copious sputum, fatigue, chest pain and heaviness,
wheezing, bronchitis, dry hard cough.
3. Stimulates the heart and circulation, dispels cold and relieves debility; regulates blood pressure,
rescues collapse and revives consciousness.
4. Stimulates digestion, harmonises the middle and relieves constipation.
 Funtions and indications cont.
5. Promotes menstruation and clears stagnation; harmonises and promotes labour, and enhances delivery;
prevents miscarriage.
6. Promotes sweating and urination, reduces fever, promotes eruptions, eases the throat and benefits the skin.
7. Reduces infection, stimulates immunity and antidotes poison; reduces pain, inflammation and contusion,
and benefits the skin.
• Bronchial asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough, oedema, diarrhoea, dysentery, syphilis. Can be used in emergency
during an angina or asthma attack and as well as anxiety attacks or hysteria.
Preparation: tea, tincture, tablets; External preparations – include poultices, compresses, ointments and enemas for
tissue trauma, pain and skin conditions. Gargles benefit chronic sore throat.
Dosage: tea – ¼ - ½ tsp of herb in a cup of boiled water
Tincture: 0.5 – 2 ml daily (0.5 to 1ml 3 times a day)
• In acute angina attacks: take 20-60 drops (up to ½ tsp) of the tincture immediately
• To prevent threatening miscarriage: take up to 2ml of the tincture every ½ hr
• In failure to progress with hypertonic contractions: take 1-2ml of the tincture every ½ hr
• As an emetic to cause therapeutic vomiting: 4-5ml of the tincture
 Lobelia inflata cont.
Caution: Lobelia root and herb belongs to the medium strength category -
Signs of overdosing include nausea, diarrhoea, salivation, vision and hearing disturbances,
mental confusion and general weakness. Is essentially safe - in-built safety mechanism
whereby over-dosing will produce vomiting.
Special affinity: heart and circulation, intestines, lungs, kidneys, bladder, nerves, uterus,
skin, liver, Bladder meridians, air, warmth, fluid bodies.
Comments: An excellent herb when used judiciously for asthma.
Lobelia root or herb is given during the first stage of labour when contractions are
hypertonic and ineffective, and with a failure to progress – used especially when a women
has lost her will to continue. Lobelia will space out the contraction waves and make them
more effective, allowing her to regain a balanced state and therefore the willingness to
continue on her own.
Smaller doses are more stimulating (functions 3-6), whereas larger doses are more relaxant.
3.Prunus serotina

Common name: Wild cherry bark

Part used: bark, fruits
Constituents: cyanogenic glycosides, volatile oil, coumarins, gallitannins,
resin, tannin, bitter glucoside, acid, Benzaldehydes, starch, lignans, resins,
minerals (incl. calcium, potassium, iron)
Pharmacological effects:
• Cyanogenic glycosides, essential oil and benzoic acid work together here
for the bronchodilant, anti-inflammatory and downright anti-tussive actions.
Taste: bitter, astringent
Temperament: cool and dry
 Functions and indications
1. Opens the chest and relieves wheezing and coughing; regulates heart and intestines Qi, and relieves
chest compression – asthmatic breathing, dry harsh cough, irritability, fatigue, spasmodic asthma,
whooping cough, croup
• Cough of any type (esp. irritating, relentless, spasmodic)
• Palpitations, chest oppression, stress
• Indigestion, abdominal pain, loose stool, stress-induces chronic respiratory, cardiac and digestive disorders
2. Clears empty heat, reduces fever and generates strength
• Exhaustion, weakness, hot spells, low-grade fever weak rapid pulse
• Convalescent debility after acute inflammatory disorders (esp. pneumonia, pleurisy, acute hepatitis,
gastroenteritis)
• Night sweats, feverishness, dry irritating cough, lung TB, whooping cough
3. Astringes, reduces inflammation and stops diarrhoea
• Chronic loose stool, fatigue
• Chronic diarrhoea, eye inflammation (acute), chronic ulcers
• Anti-tussive, mild sedative, astringent, digestive bitter, antispasmodic (respiratory tract), expectorant
 Prunus serotina cont.
Pharmacological effects:
Preparation: cold water infusion or tincture
Dosage: 2-4.5ml of 1:2 strength in 25% alc
• Cold infusion: 6-10g
Safety: Contraindicated in stomach/intestines cold disorders and pregnancy because of the teratogenic
cyanogenic glycoside.
Special affinity: Chest
Comments: The outer bark of the Wild Cherry tree is best thought of as a relaxant remedy for the thoracic
area, with a secondary systemic restorative action. Particularly useful where there is an irritating ‘tickly’
cough.
Wild cherry is usually combined with other pectoral remedies. Because of its drying nature, more moist
remedies such as licorice, fennel seed, slippery elm bark, marshmallow will go well with it.
However, if the condition is phlegmatic in the lung, causing copious sputum, Thymus vulgaris (H+M) or
Marrubium vulgare (H+D) and Hyssop (H+D) would be good choices.
4.Thymus vulgaris

Common names: Thyme

Parts used: leaves, flowers, oil
Constituents: volatile oil, flavonoids, tannins,
bitter principle, labiatic acid, caffeic acid
• Temperament: H+M
Actions: expectorant, spasmolytic, antibacterial, antifungal, rubefacient (topically),
antimicrobial, carminative, antioxidant, astringent, anthelmintic, anti-tussive.
Pharmacological effects: Thyme extracts exhibited a spasmolytic effect on isolated
smooth muscle and inhibited agents that stimulate smooth muscle. The relaxing effect of
bradykinin was potentiated.
• Essential oil of thyme demonstrated antimicrobial and fungicidal activity in vitro, in
several studies.
 Thymus vulgaris cont.
Indications: bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, whooping cough, catarrh of the upper
respiratory tract, ringworm, athlete’s foot, thrush, bites and stings, coughs, colds, flu,
dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, colic, flatulence, diarrhoea. Tonsilitis – as a gargle.
Preparation: tea, tincture, syrup, essential oil
Dosage: 2-6ml of 1:2 liquid extract per day
Safety: safe
Comments: Thyme incorporates three of the most important pharmacological actions
for the bronchi and lungs, namely expectorant, antispasmodic and antiseptic. It is a
herb with a truly holistic action, ideal for childhood coughs and asthma.
 5.Adhatoda vasika

Common name: Malabar nut

Parts used: leaf and flowers
Temperament: Hot2 and moist2
Constituents: essential oil, alkaloids
Actions: Expectorant, antispasmodic, anti-asthmatic, alterative, bronchodilator, wound healing, oxytocic.
Concoctive to phlegmatic and melancholic humours.
Specific organs/tissues affected: Lungs
Humours affected: phlegmatic and melancholic humours
Indications: asthma, acute bronchitis, cough, hoarse voice, broncho-dilator, post-partum haemorrhage to
assist with uterine involution, locally for gum disease. It has proven very effective in the treatment of
pulmonary tuberculosis.
Preparation: tea, tincture
Dosage: 0.5 to 1.5g/day or 1-3ml/day of the 1:2 extract.
Safety: Contra-indicated in pregnancy, except at birth.
 Anticatarrhals

Indications for their use range from catarrhal congestion to some types of mucosal hypersensitivity such as asthma,
hayfever, allergic rhinitis and sinusitis.
Plant remedies traditionally used as anticatarrhals:
• Euphrasia officinalis (Eyebright) - cooling
• Plantago lanceolata/major (Plaintain or ribwort) – C+D
• Linum usitatissimum (slippery elm) – C+M
• Sambucus nigra (elderberry) -
• Mentha piperita (peppermint) – H+M
• Mentha longifolia (wild mint) – H+M
• Hydrastis canadensis (golden seal) – D+H
• Solidago virgaurea (golden rod)
• Salvia officinalis (sage) – M+H? C+D
• Salvia Africana-lutea (wild sage) – M+H? C+D
Hydrastis Canadensis is particularly indicated where there is copious yellow – green discharge of a chronic nature.
Solidago vigaurea may also fit into this category. Salvia officinalis has a general drying effect on bodily secretions,
including the mucous membranes and may be indicated where secretions are particularly copious and watery.
Anticatarrhals are generally regarded as gentle and safe and are best taken before meals. Long term therapy is usually
well tolerated.
6.Plantago lanceolata/major

Common name: Plantain, ribwort

Parts used: Leaves
Temperament: cooling
Constituents: Silicic acid, Iridoid glycosides, flavonoids, mucilage, tannins oleanic acid, plant acids
Actions: Anti-haemorrhagic, anti-tussive, anti-inflammatory, astringent, demulcent, antibiotic, diuretic.
Pharmacological effects: Aucubin, the other iridoid glycosides or their metabolites inhibit prostaglandin
formation, which would explain their anti-inflammatory properties.
Indications: cough, cattarhal conditions, otitis media, gastritis, diarrhoea, dysentery, Irritable bowel syndrome, cuts
and bruises.
Taste: astringent
Preparation: tea or tincture
Dosage: 2.5 – 5ml of liquid extract; daily dose of dried herb 3-6g.
• Fresh plant juice or powdered herb is included in ointments for topical application.
Safety: safe
Comments: This herb is an excellent anti-catarrhal, which will dry up the most stubborn cases of catarrh of the
respiratory tract and middle ear.
7.Euphrasia officinalis

Common name: Eyebright

Parts used: Aerial parts
Temperament: cooling
Constituents: alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, iridoid glycosides, phenethyl glycosides, tannins,
phenolic acids, volatile oils, bitter principle, phytosterols, resins, vitamin C, carbohydrates.
Actions: anti-catarrhal, astringent, anti-inflammatory, mucous membrane tonic
Pharmacological effects: Iridoid glycosides or the metabolites formed in the body appear to inhibit prostaglandin
formation and are therefore anti-inflammatory. Phenolics contribute to its antibacterial effects.
Indications: Sinusitis, nasal catarrh, whooping cough, conjunctivitis, disorders of the eye
• (infections/inflammation). Allergic rhinitis, postnasal drip, middle ear infections, hayfever and all its symptoms, sinus
headaches.
Taste: saline, bitter
Preparation: tincture, tea
Dosage: 2-4.5ml of 1:2 liquid extract
• Infusion: 1tsp tds
• Compress: 1tsp in a cup of water – boil for 10min – strain and let it cool down slightly. Dampen a cotton wool
slightly and place on eyes for 15 minutes. Repeat several times a day.
Safety: Safe but avoid in pregnancy.
Special affinity: Eyes, nose, sinuses, lungs
Comments: Eyebright is often quoted as an example of the “doctrine of signatures” because the bright flowers are
thought to resemble eyes and hence suggest therapeutic value in treating eye ailments.
8.Sambucus nigra

Common name: Elderberry

Parts used: Flowers, berries
Constituents: Flavonoids, Triterpenes, acids,
volatile oils, tannins, mucilage, sugars, pectin, vitamins
Actions: Diaphoretic, anti-catarrhal, diuretic, laxative, anti-inflammatory, , nutritive, immune tonic, adaptogenic.
Pharmacological action:
• Antioxidant effects have been ascribed to the fruits due to their anthocyanin content.
• Immune tonic because of its high concentration of flavonoids. A unique protein found in elderberry acts as a
messenger, regulating immune response.
• Is a potent viral inhibitor. Has also demonstrated inhibition of the herpes virus and HIV in a cell culture.
• The anthocyanins present in elderberry protect vascular epithelial cells against oxidative insult, preventing
vascular disease – shown to prevent LDL cholesterol and atherosclerosis
Indications: colds, influenza, cough, sinusitis, arthritis, rheumatism, gout, syphilis, epilepsy, hayfever, catarrhal
deafness, induces sweat in feverish chills. Beneficial for purifying the blood, kidneys, liver and skin. Mild
laxative. Cleanses mucous from the tissues.
Sambucus nigra is always in a herbal tonic for colds and flu and part of an adaptogenic tonic formula. Especially
great for children in the winter as an overall immune tonic.
 Sambucus nigra cont.
Taste: sweet
Temperament: warming
Preparation: tincture, tea, decoction, cream
Dosage: infusion: 2tsp flowers tds
• Tincture: 5ml 3-4 times daily
• Decoction: 100ml 3X daily = rheumatic aches
Safety: safe (the flowers do not contain cyanide producing glycosides and are therefore not toxic like
the leaves and the berries. Do not use while pregnant or breastfeeding.
Special affinity: Lungs, sinuses
Comments: Sambucus is indispensable in the herbal pharmacy, as part of a sinus treatment. Its
diaphoretic action makes it invaluable in the treatment of colds and flu.
 9.Mentha piperita

Common names: Peppermint

Parts used: leaves, oil
Constituents: essential oil, flavonoids, tannins, triterpenes, Bitter substances, Rosmarinic acid, azulenes,
choline, carotenes
Actions: Antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, aromatic, antiemetic, antimicrobial, sedative,
nervine
• Topically: analgesic and antipruritic
Pharmacological effects: The cooling effect is due to the presence of menthol which affects cold receptors.
Indications: Influenza, dyspepsia, sinusitis, chronic digestive problems, bloating, flatulence, gastritis, enteritis,
cough, colds, nausea, vomiting, nervous conditions, dysmenorrheal. Topically for headaches. Muscle relaxant,
stimulates bile and digestive juice secretions, lack of appetite, colic nerve pains.
Taste: characteristic
Temperament: Hot and moist
Preparation: tea, tincture, essential oil, capsules, lotion
Dosage: 1.5-4.5ml of 1:2 liquid extract
Safety: safe
Special affinity: Sinuses, lungs
Comments: A powerful decongestant when inhaled, and even when taken as an infusion. Antibacterial. Very
good for pain relief.
 Antimicrobials

From a biochemical point of view, a variety of constituents are presumed responsible for the anti-
infective actions found in plants. Chief among them are polysaccharides, alkaloids, glycosides and
essential oil fractions, and vitamin C.
Herbs that clear heat and reduce infection
• Generally called refrigerants or simply cooling remedies. Fever and inflammation are normal
responses of a warm body to toxic irritation by various pathogens, including exogenous micro-
organisms and endogenous toxins. These involve hyper-functioning and may include the signs of
fever (pyrexia) and inflammation, a rapid pulse and deep red tongue, as well as the subjective
symptom of feeling of heat.
Refrigerants address hot conditions in 2 ways:
• They reduce the heat of fever and inflammation that have become too intense or prolonged and so
counterproductive to healing. As such they include antipyretic and anti-inflammatory remedies.
• They reduce infection itself whenever this is present. As such they include anti-infective herbs with
detoxicant, immunostimulant and anti-microbial actions.
Important anti-infective remedies include Echinacea root (C+D), Baptisia tinctoria root, Hydrastis
Canadensis (D+H), Berberis vulgaris (H+M), Salvia officianalis (M+H), Pelargonium sidoides, capsicum
minimum (H+D), Sutherlandia frutescens.
10. Echinaceapurpurea/pallida/augustifolia

Common name: Purple coneflower

Parts used: whole plant
Temperament: Cool + Dry
Constituents: alkaloids, alkamides, amides, polysaccharides, glycosides,
polyacetylenes, volatile oil, echinolone, essential oil, tannins, resins, fatty
acids, polyacetylenes, sesquiterpene, enzymes, phytosterols, trace minerals,
vitamin C.
 Functions and Indications
1. Clears toxic heat and reduces infection, fever and inflammation; stimulates and regulates
immunity, antidotes poison and reduces allergy.
• Microbial toxicosis with toxic heat: boils, abscesses, pyodermia, inflammations, fevers, allergies
• Bacterial and viral infections (local or systemic, acute or chronic, esp dermal, respiratory, urogenital; esp
with swollen glands, purulence and mucus discharges)
• Layryngitis, tonsillitis, meningitis, septicaemia, diphtheria, tetanus, rabies, cholera,
• Herpes. Gonorrhoea, vaginitis, prostatis, peritonitis, appendicitis, mastitis
• Preventative in epidemics
• Fevers
• Poisoning from plants, food or animals and insects
• Allergies (immediate, incl. rhinitis, otitis, atopic dermatitis)
2. Promotes detoxification and urination, reduces lymph congestion, relieves eczema and reduces
tumors; stops discharge
• Eczema, psoriasis
• Lymphadenitis, lymphadenoma
• Prostate enlargement
• Tumors (incl cancer, esp with mucosal involvement)
• Catarrhal discharges
 Echinacaea cont.
3. Promotes sweating, reduces fever and promotes eruptions
• Chills, feverishness, sore throat, aches and pains in muscles, swollen glands
• Cold and flu onset with fever
• Eruptive fever (measles, mumps, scarlet fever, chickenpox)
4. Stimulates digestion and relieves abdominal fullness.
5. Promotes tissue repair, clears decay and relieves pain and swelling
• Wounds, gangrene (with inflammation, pain, swelling, infection, purulence, putrefaction)
• Ulcers (esp chronic, septic, with sloughing of skin, mouth, tongue, throat)
• Burns, scalds, skin inflammations and rashes
• Antimicrobial, immune-modulator, anti-inflammatory, anti-catarrhal, alterative, vulnerary, anti-
bacterial, anti-viral, peripheral vasodilator, immune-stimulator, depurative, lymphatic, sialagogue,
refrigerant detoxicant and dissolvent remedy, anti-tumour, mucostatic.
6. Pharmacological effects:
• Immune-stimulant properties are ascribed to the polysaccharides but the amides and caffeic acid
derivatives also contribute to antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects in alcoholic extracts.
• Wound healing was shown using the polysaccharide fraction, echinacin B.
 Echinacaea cont.
• Indications: Bacterial or viral infection, abscess, boils, septicaemia, upper respiratory tract
infections (laryngitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, catarrhal conditions of the nose and sinouses),
enhancing immune response, adjuvant therapy for cancer.
• Taste: Sweet then bitter? Pungent, salty
• Preparation: tincture, tea, decoction, capsules, tablets
• Dosage: 3-6ml of 1:2 liquid extract of root (1-4mls tds)
• Infusion: 1-2 tsps of herb
• Decoction: 1-2 tsps of root (6-10g)
• Tincture: 2-4ml at 1:2 strength in 50% alcohol
• For acute conditions (onset of flu and other infections), take up to 2 tablespoons of the decoction or 1
tsp of the tincture every 2hrs.
• Safety: safe
• Special affinity: Skin- anti-inflammatory agent
• Comments: Is an excellent antibiotic which will effectively deal with most moderate infections. It
is best used in large quantities for acute infections. It is also an excellent prophylactic against
infection. Echinacea is an excellent anti-inflammatory agent for many skin conditions. Has a high
iron content accompanied by copper and cobalt making the iron more readily available to the system.
 11. Capsicum minimum/annum/frutescens

Common name: Chilli pepper

Parts used: Fruit
Constituents: Capsaicinoids, volatile oils, carotenoid pigments, vitamins, proteins, steroidal
saponins
Actions: Stimulant, antispasmodic, carminative,
diaphoretic, counterirritant, antiseptic, rubefacient
Taste: pungent
Temperament: H4+D4
Preparation: tincture, tablets, powder, ointment, infused oil
Dosage: Pinch of powder to 25ml lemon juice, dilute with water, add honey – gargle for sore
throats. Ointment on unbroken skin; Infused oil – massage into rheumatic limbs
Safety: Safe under professional supervision
Special affinity: throat, bronchi, lungs
Comments: Is an excellent herb for the respiratory system and used judiciously, can bring
relief to asthma sufferers. It also makes a good gargle for sore throats.
12. Achillea millefolium
Common name: Yarrow
Parts used: Flowering tops
Temperament: H2+M
Constituents: Essential oil, sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, bitter alkaloids, tannins, sugars
Specific organs/tissues and humours affected: glands, epithelial tissues. Melancholic
humour.
Actions: Diaphoretic, hypotensive, diuretic, urinary antiseptic, anti-thrombotic, antipyretic,
peripheral vasodilator, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, bitter tonic, carminative, digestive,
styptic, antimicrobial, anti-hemorrhagic, vulnerary, alterative.
Pharmacological effects:
• Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity has been documented – mainly ascribes to
sesquiterpene lactones and azulenic compounds.
• The flavonoids are thought to be anti-spasmodic
• The alkaloids are said to have antipyretic and hypotensive effects.
 Achillea millefolium cont.
Indications: Fever, common cold, influenza menorrhagia, gastrointestinal bleeding,
essential hypertension, amenorrhoea, dysentery, anorexia, dyspepsia, intestinal colic and
diarrhoea. Good anti-inflammatory for glandular inflammation. Used in various hepatic
disorders. Stimulates digestion and tones the bloodvessels. Urinary antiseptic – cystitis.
Regulates blood pressure due to dilation of the peripheral vessels, so it is a good medicine
for secondary or cold and dry high blood pressure. Good for flatulence, colic and heartburn.
Topically: for dermatitis and chronic skin disorders.
Taste: insipid
Preparation: tincture, tea, decoction for skin ailments, mouthwash
Dosage: 15 – 40ml per week (1:2 liquid); 2-6ml of liquid extract per day
• 1-2g per day – tablet
Safety: Safe but avoid during pregnancy; contraindicated in known allergy.
Comment: One of the best diaphoretic herbs and is a standard remedy for aiding the body
to deal with fever. Is useful in influenza and heavy chest colds, and also as a blood purifier.
 
13. Pelargonium sidoides

Common name: umckaloabo (a traditional African herb)

Parts used: fleshy roots
Constituents: Coumarins, gallic acid derivatives,
oligomeric proanthocyanidins, flavonoids, pelargonium oils.
Actions: Antibiotic, immune-stimulant
Pharmacological effects: The gallic acid derivatives and other phenolic compounds in the roots
have powerful antibacterial and antiviral activity and these compounds, together with the
coumarins, provide a rationale for the proven immunomodulatory activity. Pelargonium oil is
antibacterial.
Indications: acute and chronic infections of the nose, ears and chest, particularly effective for
bronchitis in children and as a supportive treatment in tuberculosis and chronic bronchitis.
Temperament:
Preparation: powder, tincture, tea, syrup Dosage: 2-6ml of 1:2 liquid extract per day
Safety
 Other herbs in this category:
• Marrubium vulgare (White horehound)
• Inula helenium (Elecampagne)
• Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Cinnamon) – Dry2 and Hot
• Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) – Cold2 and moist2
• Zingerber officinalis (ginger) – Hot and Dry
• Allium sativa (garlic) – Hot3 and Dry2
• Angelica archangelica – Hot and Dry
 Syrups/vinegar/cough syrup
Elderberry syrup
Throat gargle - discussion
Homemade cough syrup
Four thieves vinegar