Introduction to Sensors: Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Introduction to Sensors
Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN 1
Human and robot sensors quiz
 How many sensors or senses do humans have? What
are they?
 Describe how any two of those human sensor work
 Give at least three examples of robot sensors that are
similar to human senses.

Light enters the front of the eye through the pupil The tongue is covered with dozens of
and is focused by the lens onto the retina. Rod cells pimple-like projections called papillae.
Auditory system 1.Ossicle. 2. Semicircular canal.
on the retina respond to the light and send a These grip and move food when you
3. Cochlea. 4. Auditory nerve 5. Eustachian tube
message through the optic nerve fiber to the brain. chew. Around the sides of the papillae
6.Midle ear. 7. Ear drum 8. External ear canal
are about 10,000 microscopic taste
buds. Different parts of the tongue are
sensitive to different flavours: sweet,
salt, sour and bitter.
The sense of touch is the name

given to a network of nerve
endings that reach just about
every part of our body. These
sensory nerve endings are
located just below the skin and
register light and heavy pressure
on the skin and also differences in
temperature. These nerve
Olfactory system. 1. Olfactory bulb. 2. nasal cavity. 3. Brain. 4. Olfactory epithelium endings gather information and
5. Vomeronasal organ. 6. Ions. 7 Glomeruli. *. Axon. 9. To olfactory cortex send it to the brain

Human and robot sensors quiz
 5 main senses: vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste
 Human sensor: eyes, ears, nose, skin and tongue
 Additional sensors: temperature sensors, body position sensors, b
alance sensors and blood acidity sensors
 How they work:
 Eyes: surrounding light -> relay it to nerve cells -> send signal to
brain
 Ears: sound wave -> air vibrations -> inner ear -> hair cells -> se
nd signal to brain
 Nose: particle are inhaled into the nose -> nerve cell contact the p
articles -> send signal to brain
 Skin: sensor all over the skin are activate and send signals to brain
through the nervous system
 Tongue: particles in food -> hair cell -> send signals to brain thro
ugh the nervous system

 Your sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and s
kin) provide information to your brain so that it can m
ake decisions.
 Several additional sensors in the body that donot noti
ce directly
 Sensors in the inner ear give the brain information abou
t balance
 Sensor in muscles inform the brain of our body position
s
 Sensor throughout the body that sense temperature
 … and more

 The robot uses sensors to interact with its envi
ronment.
 There are a variety of sensors used for a variet
y of purposes: Pressure, rotation, temperature,
smoke, tilt, vibration, light, proximity and so o
n.

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN
Overview
 What are Sensors?
 Detectable Phenomenon
 Physical Principles – How Do Sensors Work?
 Need for Sensors
 Choosing a Sensor
 Sensor Descriptions

Sensors in Robot
 A model of sensing
 Sensing
 Sensor

Need for Sensors
 Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in
our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular tel
ephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial pla
nts and countless other applications.
 Without the use of sensors, there would be no

automation !!
 Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring bottl
es

Transducers
 Transducer
 a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corres
ponding signal with a different energy form
 Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, o
ptical, chemical, etc.
 take form of a sensor or an actuator
 Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
 a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
 acquires information from the “real world”
 Actuator (e.g., heater)
 a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system

Sensor - Definition
 Sensor: a device that detects a change in a physical
stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measu
red or recorded
 Transducer: a mechanism, or element, of the sensor
that transforms the energy associated with it what is
being measured into another form of enery. Primary e
nergy forms: mechanical, thermal, optical, chemical…
 Sensors use transducers to change the input signal (s
ound, light, pressure, temperature, etc) into an analo
g or digital form capable of being used by a robot

What are Sensors?
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Definition
 A device which provides a usable output in response to a spe
cified measurand
Input Output
Signal Signal
Sensor
 A sensor acquires a physical parameter and converts it into a sig

nal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
 Example:
https://www.elprocus.com/difference-between-sensor-and-transduce
r/
Sensor - Definition

Classification of Sensors
 Proprioceptive (Internal state) v.s. Exteroceptive
 Measure values internally to the system (battery level,
wheel position, joint angle…)
 Observation of environments, objects
 Active vs Passive
 Emitting energy into the environment, e.g., infrared, ra
dar, sonar
 Passively receive energy to make observation: camera
 Contact vs. non-contact
 …

Choosing a Sensor

Common Sensors and Transducers
Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase,
polarization), Spectrum,
Wave Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or
Liquid)
Electric Charge, Voltage, Current,
Electric Field (amplitude,
phase, polarization),
Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude,
phase, polarization),
Flux, Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity,
Absorption
Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific

Heat, Thermal
Conductivity
Mechanical Position, Velocity,
Acceleration, Force,
Strain, Stress, Pressure,
Torque

Physical Principles
 Amperes’s Law
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force
(e.g. galvanometer)
 Faraday’s Law of Induction

 A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing v
oltage/current (e.g. transformer)
 Photoconductive Effect
 When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of
the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
 …

Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
 convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
 General Electronic Sensor
 primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical s
ignal
 secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digita
l values
real primary analog secondary usable
world transducer signal transducer values
sensor
 Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication

Primary Transducers
 Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
 thermocouple: temperature difference
 compass (magnetic): direction
 Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
 photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
 infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
 piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
 microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
 chemical sensors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
 DNA arrays: match DNA sequences

Example Primary Transducers
 Light Sensor
 photoconductor
 light  R
 photodiode
 light  I
 membrane pressure sensor

 resistive (pressure   R)
 capacitive (pressure  C)
Light Sensor
 Light sensors are also us

ed in a variety of applica
tions:
 Automatic street lights
 Camera flash and expo
sure controls
 Security alarms
 Sensor is composed of p
hotoconductor such as a
photoresistor, photodiod
e, or phototransistor p n
I
+ V -
Light energy
 Light power falls on a unit area
 Lux: apparent brightness (power multiplied by the human eye’s se
nsitivity)
 1 lux of yellow light is about 0.0015 W/m2
 1 lux of green light is 0.0029 W/m2
 Sunlight: about 50000 lux
 Artificial light typically 500 – 1000 lux
Visible spectrum

Introducing the Photoresistor
 While there are a variety of light sensors, a very popul
ar one is the photoresistor in that it is easy to use and
inexpensive.
 As the name implies, it is a resistor that reacts to ligh
t. The active ingredient Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) allow
s electrons to flow more easily when light energy hits
it, thus lowering it resistance (opposition to current flo
w).
 The brighter the light the lower the resistance.
 dark 1MOhm
 10 lux 40 kOhm
 1000 lux 400 Ohm

 A photoresistor is made of a high resistance se
miconductor.
 The photons of high frequency light are absorb
ed by the semiconductor giving bound electron
s enough energy to jump into the conduction b
and. The resulting free electrons (and their hol
e partners) conduct electricity thereby lowering
resistance.

Basic Circuit
• As the photoresistor’s resistance changes

with light exposure, so does the voltage at
Vo. As R gets larger, Vo gets smaller, and as R
R gets smaller, Vo gets larger.
V0
• Vo is what the BASIC Stamp I/O pin is
detecting when it is functioning as an input.
• If this circuit is connected to IN6, when the

voltage at Vo is above 1.4 V, IN6 will store a
1. If Vo falls below 1.4 V, IN6 will store a 0.

Photojunction Sensor
 Pn junction: if a photon has enough
ernergy to jump the band gap, hole
-electron pair are produced that mo
dify the junction characteristic.
 Photodiode: with reverse biasing, th
e reverse photocurrent increase line
arly with an increase in radiation
 Phototransistor: radiation generate
Base current (iB) which result in the
generation of a large current flow fr For 0 irradiance: IV is as
normal diode
om Collector to Emitter (response ti 1mW/cm2, open-circuit
me = 10 us) voltage is 500mV and
short-circuit is 8 uA

Line Sensor
 QRD1114: infrared (IR)
reflective sensor to dete
rmine the reflectivity of t
he surface below it.
 When over the black pla
ying field, the reflectivity
is very low
 When over the white bo
rder, the reflectivity is v
ery high and will cause a
different reading from th
e sensor.

A digital line sensor
Add a 10k Ohm

resister as shown
 W is connected to Vdd
 B is connected to Vss
 R is connected to an input pin
 The R’s voltage will drop below 1.4 V when the IR transistor sees
infrared reflected from the IR LED.
 When the IR LED’s signal is mostly absorbed by a black surface,
the voltage at R goes above 1.4 V.
 The BASIC Stamp interprets any voltage above 1.4 V as 1 and an
y voltage below 1.4 V as 0.

DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENTS

Displacement Measurements
 Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize disp
lacement sensors
 Examples
 diameter of part under stress (direct)
 movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid mov
ement through the heart (indirect)
 Primary Transducer Types

 Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
 Inductive Sensors
 Capacitive Sensors
 Piezoelectric Sensors
 Secondary Transducers
 Wheatstone Bridge
ĐiệnAmplifiers
Khoa tử - Viễn thông
Measuring Strain (Strain Gages)
 Strain: the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force.
 When a force is applied to a structure, the components of the structure
change slightly in their dimensions and are said to be strained
 Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions are called strain
gages
 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage: a device whose electrical resistance va
ries in proportion to the amount of strain in the device
 Hooke’s law: σ = Eε

Strain Gage: Gage Factor
 Remember: for a strained thin wire
 DR/R = DL/L – DA/A + Dr/r
 A = p (D/2)2, for circular wire
D L
 Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to cha

nge in length L
 DL/L = L; DD/D = T; DD/D = - D L/L;
 DA/A = 2DD/D = 2 = 2 T = 2(-L); : Poison’s ratio
 Thus
 DR/R = (1+2 ) DL/L
dimensional Dr/r
effect +piezoresistive effect
 Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials
 G = DR/R = (1+2 ) + Dr/r

DL/L
Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông DL/L
Strain Gauge
Tension
Compression
l =>
R Rl
A
R  Resistance
l l
 Property of material
l  Length of wire R R

A Effective cross sectional area of wire
Example
 Application of Strain gauge in measuring
torque and thrust produced by propellers in small un
manned quad-rotor helicopter
Torque (N-m)
Thrust (N) / Lift force by propeller

 F = kx
 F: Force applied
 K: spring const.
 X: spring elongation
 F = f(x)
 => Voltage = f(Force)

Wheatstone Bridge
 Calculate Vout ?
 Vin = 5 V, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 3K
 Vin = 5 V, R1 = R4 = 4K; R1 = R3 = 2K
(4) (2)
(2) (4)

Full Bridge Strain Gauge
Tension
Compression
R
R
R
R
R
R R R

Bending Beam Load Cell
Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge
In Tension
Strain Gauge
in compression

Measuring Thrust & Torque

Measuring Thrust & Torque
Torque
Thrust

Position sensors - Potentiometer
 Rotary Linear
 Optical shaft encoder

Positional Sensing Circuit
 Advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc

 Disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low accura
cy, low repeatability, and limited frequency response,
movement of its wiper or slider is limited to the physic
al size of the potentiometer being used, short mechan
ical life.
Inductive Position Sensors
 Advantages
 There will not be problems due
to mechanical hysteresis.
 Provides a good response to sta
tic as well as dynamic measure
ments.
 Provides a high output.
 Disadvantages
 The frequency response is contr
olled by the construction of forc
e ring members.
 Accuracy errors may occur due
to the interference of external
magnetic field.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
 When the armature is moved
from one end to the other thr
ough the centre position the
output voltages changes from
maximum to zero and back to
maximum again but in the pr
ocess changes its phase angle
by 180 deg’s.
 Advantages of the linear varia
ble differential transformer, or
LVDT compared to a resistive
potentiometer are that its line
arity, that is its voltage output
to displacement is excellent, v
ery good accuracy, good resol
ution, high sensitivity as well
as frictionless operation. They
are also sealed for use in host
ile environments.

PROXIMITY SENSORS

 Measures the closeness of the auto body to obstacles
(both animate and inanimate) that may not be visible
to the driver or that the driver may yet not have realis
ed
 Types • Requirements
– Range (depends on utility)
 Ultrasonic – Identify direction of impact
 Microwave – closing velocity
– acceleration, trajectory of object
 Capacitive – point of impact
– Minimum load on driver attention during
normal operation
– Warning should be attention demanding
and well in advance
– Distinguish animate/inanimate
– size, shape of object to permit
classification
– mass & stiffness to evaluate impact inertia
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
PING Ultrasonic Range Finder
• PING ultrasonic distance sensor provides precise distance

measurements from about 2 cm (0.8 inches) to 3 meters (3.3
yards).
• It works by transmitting an ultrasonic burst and providing an

output pulse that corresponds to the time required for the burst
echo to return to the sensor.
• By measuring the echo pulse width the distance to target can

easily be calculated.
Theory of Operation
 The PING sensor emits a short
ultrasonic burst and then "listen
s" for the echo.
 Under control of a host microco
ntroller (trigger pulse), the sens
or emits a short 40 kHz (ultraso
nic) burst.
 This burst travels through the ai
r at about 340 m/s, hits an obje
ct and then bounces back to th
e sensor.
 The PING sensor provides an o
utput pulse to the host that will
terminate when the echo is det
ected, hence the width of this p
ulse corresponds to the distanc
e to the target.

Example
 Detect the reflected wave after 10 µs
 Calculate the distance r?

Limited Detection Range

Ultrasonic Sensor
 Ultrasonic sensors are use

d for position measuremen
ts
 Sound waves emitted are i
n the range of 2-13 MHz
 Sound Navigation And Ra
nging (SONAR)
 Radio Dection And Rangin
g (RADAR) – ELECTROMAG
NETIC WAVES !! 15° - 20°

 Time of flight (for sensing distance)
 Doppler shift (for sensing velocity)
 Amplitude attenuation (for sensing distance, direction
ality, or attenuation coefficient)

Object Detection Using IR
 The IR detector is only looki
ng for infrared that’s flashing
on and off 38,500 times per
second.
 It has built-in optical filters tha
t allow very little light except t
he 980 nm infrared.
 It also has an electronic filter t
hat only allows signals around
38.5 kHz to pass through.
 This prevents IR interference
from common sources such
as sunlight and indoor lightin
g.

 The key to making each IR LED/detector pair work is to se
nd 1 ms of 38.5 kHz FREQOUT harmonic, and then, imme
diately store the IR detector’s output in a variable.
FREQOUT 8, 1, 38500
irDetectLeft = IN9
 The IR detector’s output state when it sees no IR signal is

high. When the IR detector sees the 38500 Hz harmonic re
flected by an object, its output is low.
 The IR detector’s output only stays low for a fraction of a

millisecond after the FREQOUT command is done sending
the harmonic, so it’s essential to store the IR detector’s out
put in a variable immediately after sending the FREQOUT
command.

Infrared proximity sensing
Proximity sensing
with four different
LED driving currents

Component placement dimensions
 Component placement pla
ys a crucial role in the me
chanical design that deter
mines the proximity-detec
tion distance
 space dimension betwee
n sensor to optical barrie
r
 distance between optical Typical component-placement dimensions
barrier and infrared LED
 barrier height variations
 whether to use a light pi
pe, among others. tance

Proximity-sensing system algorithms
 A robust proximity-sensing system also requires the o
ptical sensor to do dynamic self-adjustment for differe
nt sensing objects under various ambient-light environ
ments.
 A good proximity-sensing algorithm is essential to hel
p the proximity sensing hardware intelligently navigat
e through obstacles from different mechanical-design
limitations and harsh ambient environment, in order t
o sustain a robust detection distance.

Inductive Proximity Sensors
 Oscillator: produces the electro
magnetic field
 Coil: generates the magnetic fiel
d
 Detection circuit: detects any ch
ange in the field when an object
enters it
 Output circuit: produces the out
put signal, either with normally c
losed (NC) or normally open (N
O) contacts.
 Main disadvantage:
 Omni-directional.
 Do not detect non-metallic obje
cts

Magnetic rotary encoder
 A type of position sensor which resemble potentiometers mentio
ned earlier but are non-contact optical devices used for convertin
g the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digi
tal data code. In other words, they convert mechanical movemen
t into an electrical signal (preferably digital).
 Non touch sensing

Optical rotary encoder
 The light received (on or off) will tell the rotation an
gle)
3 light receivers
Light paths
Rotation shaft
3 light emitters
Crank shaft sensor

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuIislTGOwA
 How a ball computer mouse work?

TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Temperature Sensor
 Temperature sensors appear in building, chem
ical process plants, engines, appliances, comp
uters, and many other devices that require te
mperature monitoring
 Many physical phenomena depend on tempera

ture, so we can often measure temperature in
directly by measuring pressure, volume, electri
cal resistance, and strain

Temperature Sensor
 Bimetallic Strip
L  L 0[1   (T - T0)]
Metal A
 Application
δ
 Thermostat (makes or
breaks electrical conne Metal B
ction with deflection)

Temperature Sensor
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
 Positive temperature coefficients
 Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
 Formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
 often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
 typically have negative temperature coefficients
 Thermocouples
 based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps.  sig
nal

Thermistor - Basic Characteristics
 Zero-power Resistance of Thermistor: R
 R=R0 expB (1/T-1/T0 ) ..............(1)
Resistance vs. temperature
 R: Resistance in ambient temperature T
(K)
(K: absolute temperature)
 R0 : Resistance in ambient temperature T0
(K)
 B: B-Constant of Thermistor
 B-Constant: B = ln(R/R0) / (1/T-1/T0) .....(2)
 Thermal Dissipation Constant
 When electric power P (mW) is spent in ambie
nt temperature T1 and thermistor temperature
rises T2,there is a formula as follows
P=C (T2 -T1) ..................(3)
C: Thermal dissipation constant (mW/ºC)
(vary with dimensions, measurement conditions, ...)

 Thermal Time Constant
 Period in which Thermistor's temp
erature will change 63.2% of its te
mperature difference from ambien
t temperature T0 to T1 (ºC).

NTC thermistor

Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
 Sensor operation
 small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs at
tached to ends of two optical fibers
 light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on tempe
rature
 percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function o
f temperature
 Can be made small enough for biological implantation
GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

Control example: Temperature control system
 computer
Digital control Timer
Water tank circuit
Temp. Sample
Sensor Instrum.
& A/D
amp.
Hold
CPU
Pulse Width
Heater modulation D/A
& solid state relay
72

ACCELEROMETER

Accelerometer
 Functions:
 measure acceleration in one or more directions, position
can be deduced by integration.
 Orientation sensing : tilt sensor
 Vibration sensing
 Methods:
 Mass spring method ADXL78 (from Analog Device )
 Air pocket method (MX2125)
 Applications
 Vibrations, blasts, impacts, shock waves
 Air bags, washing machines, heart monitors, car alarms

ADXL78 (from Analog Device)
 Mass spring type (output acceleration in G)

 Measure the capacitance to create output

ADXL330 accelerometer for measuring accelerations in t
hree (X,Y,Z ) directions
 3D accelerometer
dx 2
x  2  accerelati on
dt
x   xdt  velocity
x   xdt  distance
Recover velocity and
distance by integration
Problem: noise may be
integrated
 Can also measure the direction of gravity

2D translational accelerometer MX2125
 Gas pocket type

 When the sensor
moves, the tempe
ratures of the 4 s
ensors are used t
o evaluate the 2D
accelerations

Orientation sensing

Self-balance Robot
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=mwAK-fiPyk4
Nguyen Khanh, KLTN, K58 ĐHCN
Sensors 78
Force sensing resistance sensors to balance a walking rob
ot
 Balancing
Floor tilled left Floor tilled right
Neutral position upper leg bend right upper leg bend left
Four sensors under the foot
Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 79

Magnetic Field Sensor
 Magnetic Field sensor
s are used for power
steering, security, an
d current measureme
nts on transmission li
nes
 Hall voltage is propor

tional to magnetic fie I (protons)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
x x x x x x +
ld
x x x B x x x VH
x x x x x x -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I B
VH 
n q t

Photogate
 Photogates are used in
counting applications
(e.g. finding period of
period motion)
 Infrared transmitter an
d receiver at opposite
ends of the sensor
 Time at which light is

broken is recorded

CO2 Gas Sensor
 CO2 sensor measures ga
seous CO2 levels in an e
nvironment
 Measures CO2 levels in t

he range of 0-5000 ppm
 Monitors how much infra Infrared Source IR Detector
red radiation is absorbed

by CO2 molecules

Example MEMS Transducers
 MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
 miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
 Microaccelerometer
 cantilever beam
 suspended mass
 Rotation Electrodes
 gyroscope
Ring
structure
 Pressure
Diaphragm (Upper electrode)
Lower electrode 5-10mm

COMPUTER VISION

Definition
 Computer vision: refers to processing data from any modality which use
s the electromagnetic spectrum which produces an image
 Computer vision includes cameras, which produe images over the same
electromagnetic spectrum that human see
 Image: a way of representing data in a picure-like format where there is a d
irect physical corespondecnce to the scene being imaged
 Pixel: element in image
 Computer vision is a separate field of study from robotics, and has produ
ced many useful algorithms for: filtering out noise, compensating illumina
tion, enhancing images, finding lines, matching lines to models, extractin
g shapes, building 3D representation

CCD cameras
 Charged couple device – CCD are sensors used in digital cameras and vi
deo cameras to record still and moving images.
 The CCD captures light and converts it to digital data that is recorded by
the camera

Image representation
 Binary image: is a digital image that has only two possible values for eac
h pixel (black and white colour)

 Greyscale image: a pixel as an 8 bit number (one byte of computer me
mory), equal to 256 discrete values of gray ( 0 ... 255)

 Color image: is expressed as the sum of three measurements: red, gree
n, blue (RGB image)
24-bit color

 HSI/HSV:
 Hue
 Saturation
 Intensity/Value

Image processing in robotics
 Region segmentation: identify a region in the image with a particular col
or
 Basic concept: identify all the pixels in an image which are part of the region
and then navigate to the region’s center

Image processing in robotics
 Color histogramming: identify a region with several colors

Range from vision
 Three types of vision sensors which are commonly used to create an im
age representing a depth map: stereo camera pairs, light stripers, and la
ser ranger finders
 Example of stereo camera pairs:
Ways of extracting depth from a pair of camera:

(a): vergence of the camera to determine the depth of a point,
(b) a set of rectified stereo images
SENSOR READOUT CIRCUITS

Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
 Photodiode Circuits
 Thermistor Half-Bridge
 voltage divider
 one element varies
 Wheatstone Bridge
 R3 = resistive sensor
 R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
 If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0 VCC
 Vout varies as R3 changes
R1+R4
Operational Amplifiers
Properties
open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
high open-loop gain  virtual short between + and - inputs
input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to idea
l
output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100
zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
Commercial opamps provide many different properties
low noise
low input current
low power
high bandwidth
low/high supply voltage
special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier

Basic Opamp Configuration
 Voltage Comparator
 digitize input
 Voltage Follower
 buffer
 Non-Inverting Amp • Inverting Amp

More Opamp Configurations
 Summing Amp
 Differential Amp
 Integrating Amp
 Differentiating Amp

Converting Configuration
 Current-to-Voltage
 Voltage-to-Current

Instrumentation Amplifier
 Robust differential
gain amplifier gain stage
 Input stage input stage

 high input impedance
 buffers gain stage
 no common mode gain
 can have differential gain
 Gain stage total differential gain

 differential gain, low input impedance
2 R2  R1  R4 
Gd   
R1  R3 
 Overall amplifier
 amplifies only the differential component
 high common mode rejection ratio
 high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high output
impedance
Instrumentation Amplifier w/ BP Filter
instrumentation amplifier HPF non-inverting amp

With 776 op amps, the circuit was found to have a CMRR of 86 dB at 100 Hz and a noise level of 40 mV peak to
peak at the output. The frequency response was 0.04 to 150 Hz for ±3 dB and was flat over 4 to 40 Hz. The total
gain is 25 (instrument amp) x 32 (non-inverting amp) = 800.

Nature of sensor data
 Measurement Accuracy
 Samples per Second:
 Streaming sampling rate vs. stored sampling rate
 Bits per Sample
 Channels per sample * bits per channel
 Small: core body temp
 Medium: audio
 Large: images
 Bandwidth requirements/Storage requirements

Sensor Calibration
 Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
 offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
 nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
 cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g., te
mperature
 Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

 analog signal conditioning 7.000
 look-up table r
lin e a
6.000
T1
 digital calibration 5.000
 T = a + bV +cV2, 4.000
ar
 T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; non-line T2
offset
3.000
 a,b,c = calibration coefficients

2.000
 Compensation 1.000
T3
 remove secondary sensitivities
0.000
 must have sensitivities characterized -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
 can remove with polynomial evaluation

 P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

References
 https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
 https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_2.html
 http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Data_Sheets/ADXL78.pdf

http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Data_Sheets/ADXL330.pdf
 http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n16/mente/senses1.html
 S.E. Derenzo, Interfacing -- A laboratory approach using the microcomp
uter for instrumentation, data analysis and control prentice hall.
 (http://www.renishaw.com/UserFiles/acrobat/UKEnglish/L-9517-9147.pd
f)
 http://mualinhkien.vn/
 http://banlinhkien.vn/


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Introduction to Sensors

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

The sense of touch is the name

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Without the use of sensors, there would be no

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 A sensor acquires a physical parameter and converts it into a sig

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Faraday’s Law of Induction

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Typical Electronic Sensor System

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 membrane pressure sensor

 Light sensors are also us

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

• As the photoresistor’s resistance changes

• If this circuit is connected to IN6, when the

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Add a 10k Ohm

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Primary Transducer Types

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to cha

 Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

 G = DR/R = (1+2 ) + Dr/r

Thrust (N) / Lift force by propeller

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Optical shaft encoder

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

 Advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

• PING ultrasonic distance sensor provides precise distance

• It works by transmitting an ultrasonic burst and providing an

• By measuring the echo pulse width the distance to target can

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông