Basic of Nutrition/ Nutrients Ii: Hikmah Mohamad Idi Foundation Biochemistry Sem 2/2021

BASIC OF
NUTRITION/
NUTRIENTS II
Hikmah Mohamad Idi
Foundation Biochemistry
Sem 2/2021
VITAMINS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

● Classify fat and water soluble vitamins
● Explain their action and function / role in metabolism
● State the sources of the vitamins and recommended dietary
allowances (RDA)
● Discuss the symptoms of deficiency and overdose of some
vitamins
VITAMINS
• Micronutrients - organic molecules needed in small amounts
for variety of biological function in the body.
• Essential nutrient - cannot be synthesized by the human
body / not in sufficient amounts to meet bodily needs.
Therefore must be obtained from the diet.
• Functions - catalytic or regulatory, facilitating / controlling
vital chemical reactions in the body’s cells.
• The most important function – coenzymes
• Deficiencies – specific deficiency disease may develop
VITAMINS
fat-soluble water-soluble
• Vitamin A, D, E & K • Vitamin B & C
• Hydrophobic – not directly into • Hydrophilic –directly into bloodstream
bloodstream Absorption: travel freely in the
Absorption: along with fats. Needs bloodstream
bile salts & lipoprotein
• Stored in the cells associated with fats • No storage (circulate freely in water-filled
parts of the body)
• Excreted slowly (less readily) – tend to • The excess excreted by kidneys
remain in fats storage sites through urine
• Likely to reach toxicity • Unlikely to reach toxicity
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
• Preformed vitamin A  retinol and its

esterified form, retinyl esters
• Provitamin A  carotenoids such as
beta-carotene
Function:
• Vision: formation of rhodopsin for vision in
dim light.
• Epithelial cell integrity: maintenance of Retinol (precursor)
 Retinal - role in vision
growth and epithelial cellular integrity
 Retinoic acid - intracellular
• Resistance to infectious disease: immune
messenger that affects
function in the body. transcription of a number of
genes.
VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
Sources:
• Preformed vitamin A (retinol) is found almost exclusively in animal
products.
Liver, meat, egg, milk
• Provitamin A (carotenoids) – plant products
green leafy vegetables, red palm oil and yellow and orange fruits
VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
Deficiency:
• Xerophthalmia (dry eye)
 early signs of xerophthalmia is night blindness, or the inability to see in
low light or darkness
• Impaired resistance to infection
 increase severity and mortality risks of infection
• Abnormal function of many epithelial cells
Toxicity:
• Acute toxicity: nausea, vomiting, headache, increased cerebrospinal fluid
pressure, vertigo, blurred vision, muscular incoordination.
• Chronic toxicity: (varied and non-specific) - central nervous system
effects, liver damage, bone abnormalities and joint pain, alopecia.
VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)
Non-essential nutrient - body can synthesize it with the help of sunlight.

Active form – Calcitriol
Function:
• maintain normal blood levels
of calcium and phosphate.
• Sustains the normal
(Calcidiol)
mineralization of bone
Sources:
• Butter, cream, egg yolk, fatty fish and liver
• The best food sources are fish liver oils.
• Foods fortified with vitamin D such as milk, cereals and orange juice can
increase vitamin D in the diet.
Deficiency:
• rickets in children & osteomalacia in adults.
• may also contribute to the development of osteoporosis (in adult).
• Deficiencies are rare. Some group of people (e.g. elderly and children) –
at risk  low intake from food and/or inadequate exposure of skin to
sunshine.
Toxicity:
- Hypervitaminosis D
• Hypercalcemia - can lead to nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness,
neuropsychiatric disturbances, pain, loss of appetite, dehydration,
polyuria, excessive thirst, and kidney stones.
• Extreme cases - renal failure, calcification of soft tissues throughout the
body (including in coronary vessels and heart valves), cardiac
arrhythmias.
VITAMIN E (ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL)
• Tocopherols & tocotrienols

• α-tocopherol is the most active
Function:
• Antioxidant - prevents the
propagation of free-radical reactions.
Protect cells against oxidative
damage.
• Protects polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs) within membrane
phospholipids and in plasma
lipoproteins
• Boost immune system, prevention of
cancer and heart disease
Sources:
• Vitamin E is synthesized only by plants.
• Vegetable oils (rich sources) - wheat germ, sunflower, safflower, corn oil
• Seeds, nuts and cereal grains.
• Green vegetable – spinach, broccoli
• Fortified food - some breakfast cereals, fruit juices, margarines and
spreads, and other foods. (d-α-tocopherol).
Deficiency:
• Rare occurrence
• Genetic abnormalities in α–tocopherol transfer protein.
• Nerve and muscle damage (loss of feeling in the arms and legs, loss of
body movement control, muscle weakness, and vision problems).
• Weakened immune system.
• Hemolytic anemia (premature and newborn)
Toxicity:
• Naturally occurring in foods - not risky or harmful. (no evidence of adverse
effects)
• May interfere with vitamin K activity leading to prolonged clotting and
bleeding time.
• Hemorrhagic stroke (serious bleeding in the brain)
VITAMIN K (PHYLLOQUINONE)
Found in both foods from both plant and animal sources & also made
by bacteria in the gut.
Function:
• Coenzyme in catalyzes prothrombin
synthesis (required in the synthesis of
other blood clotting factors).
• Regulate calcium deposition  reduce
abnormal calcification.
Sources:
• Phylloquinone - green leafy vegetables (broccoli, kale, and spinach),
vegetable oils, some fruits.
• Menaquinones –microbial origin (mostly), animal-based (meat, dairy, and
eggs) and fermented foods (fermented cheese, yogurt, natto).
Deficiency:
• Prolonged bleeding and hemorrhage (severe cases).
• Reduce bone mineralization and contribute to osteoporosis.
• Rare occurrence - limited to people with malabsorption disorders or those
taking drugs that interfere with vitamin K metabolism or antibiotics
medications that kill intestinal bacteria.
Toxicity:
• Toxicity is rare and unlikely to result from eating foods containing vitamin K
• Possible hemolytic anemia; hyperbilirubinemia (jaundice)
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)
Active form – Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)
Function:
• Co-enzyme (TPP) in the metabolism of carbohydrates and
branched-chain amino acids.
Sources:
• wide variety of foods of plant and animal origin.
• But only a few foods, including yeast, lean pork and legumes (good sources)
• Meat products (beef, chicken and duck) – lower amount
• Bread, cereal products and biscuits (fortified / enriched with thiamine)
• fruits and vegetables are poor sources of thiamine
Deficiency:
• Beri-beri. Dry (paralytic) and wet (edematous) forms.
• clinical signs  anorexia, weight loss, mental changes such as apathy,
decrease in short-term memory, confusion and irritability, muscle weakness,
and cardiovascular effects (enlarged heart).
• Wet beri-beri  edema occurs
• Dry beri-beri  muscle wasting
Toxicity:
• does not appear to be a problem with
thiamine toxicity  rapid renal clearance
VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
• primary form of the vitamin is as an integral component of the

coenzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD).
Function:
• coenzymes play major roles in numerous
metabolic pathways and in energy
production, cellular function, growth, and
development, and metabolism of fats, drugs,
and steroids
Sources:
• Like thiamin, riboflavin is found at least in small amounts in a wide variety of
plant and animal tissues.
• Food sources of riboflavin are similar to those of other B vitamins.
• Legumes (chick peas, lentils, red and black gram and soya bean)
• Various meat products, fish, eggs
• Bread, cereal products and biscuits (fortified / enriched with thiamin)
• Fruits and vegetables are poor sources of riboflavin
Deficiency:
• weakness, fatigue, cracks and sores at the corners of the mouth, eye
disorders, inflammation of the mouth and tongue, and skin lesions.
• (Advanced) - cheilosis, angular stomatitis, dermatitis, corneal vascularisation,
anaemia and brain dysfunction
• Vitamin B2 deficiency almost invariably occurs in combination with a
deficiency of other B-complex vitamins.  (e.g. glossitis and dermatitis)
Toxicity:
• No demonstrable toxicity  limited solubility and limited capacity for
absorption in the human gastrointestinal tract.
VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)
• Nicotinic acid
• Nicotinamide (active form)
Function:
• Nicotinamide  functions as a constituent of two
coenzymes NAD and NADP.
• Electron transport and other cellular respiratory
reactions.
VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)
Sources:
• Beef, poultry, liver, fish, anchovies, milk.
• Peanuts and other nuts, whole grains and whole-meal wheat flour.
• Bread, cereal products and infant formula (fortified / enriched with niacin)
• Tryptophan (essential amino acid) - when present in amounts beyond that
required for protein synthesis; can be converted to NAD
VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)
Deficiency:
• Pellagra (pigmented rash or brown discoloration
on skin exposed to sunlight; the skin also develops
a roughened, sunburned-like appearance.
• Diarrhea, Dermatitis, Dementia
Toxicity:
• Rarely observed at doses generally consumed &
niacin from foods is not known to cause adverse
effects.
• flushing, tingling, dizziness, nausea (transient
due to the vasodilating effects)
VITAMIN B5 (PANTOTHENIC ACID)
Function:
• synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA) and acyl carrier protein.
• synthesis and breakdown of many vital body compounds;
(intermediary metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein)
Sources:
• Almost all plant- and animal-based foods contain pantothenic acid in
varying amounts.
• Beef, chicken, organ meats, whole grains, and some vegetables.
• Added in breakfast cereals and beverages (such as energy drinks).
Deficiency:
• Deficiency is rare except in people with severe malnutrition
• It is usually accompanied by deficiencies in other nutrients  difficult to
identify the effects
• Fatigue; sleep disturbances; nausea; muscle cramps; impaired coordination;
loss of antibody production
Toxicity:
• No reports of toxicity in humans at high intakes
• Mild diarrhea; water retention
VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
• Active coenzyme form  Pyridoxal 5’ phosphate (PLP) &

pyridoxamine 5’ phosphate (PMP)
Function:
• Part of a coenzyme for more than 100 enzymes in amino acid
metabolism.
• Also involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.
• cognitive development (biosynthesis of neurotransmitters) and in
maintaining normal levels of homocysteine (an amino acid in the blood).
Sources:
• Fish, beef liver and other organ meats, potatoes and other starchy
vegetables, fruit (other than citrus) and milk.
• Fortified cereals, beef, poultry, starchy vegetables, and some non-citrus
fruits.
Deficiency:
• Usually associated with low concentrations of other B-complex vitamins,
such as vitamin B12 and folic acid. Vitamin B6 deficiency causes
biochemical changes that become more obvious as the deficiency
progresses.
• microcytic anemia, dermatitis with cheilosis (scaling on the lips and cracks at
the corners of the mouth) and glossitis (swollen tongue), depression and
confusion, and weakened immune function.
• Renal diseases
Toxicity:
• No reports of adverse effects
• Sensory neuropathy (nerve damage), photosensitivity & skin
lesions.
VITAMIN B7 (BIOTIN)
Function:
• Part of a coenzyme that involved in carboxylation reaction (acetyl-CoA
carboxylase & pyruvate carboxylase).  carbohydrate & lipid
metabolism.
• Involved in gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, propionate
metabolism & catabolism of amino acids.
VITAMIN B7 (BIOTIN)
Sources:
• Found in numerous foods.
• Liver, meat, eggs, soya beans, peanuts.
• Wholegrain cereal, wholemeal bread, milk and cheese.
VITAMIN B7 (BIOTIN)
Deficiency:
• Rare (alcoholism, prolonged parenteral condition)
• Symptoms – hair thinning, dermatitis, loss of hair color, depression and a red
facial rash.
Toxicity:
• No evidence in humans / no report
VITAMIN B9 (FOLIC ACID)
• Folic acid or Folate
Function:
• Essential in the biosynthesis of nucleic acids.
• Necessary for the normal maturation of red blood cells.
• Involved in neural tube formation and critical for cell division of very
early embryos.
Sources:
• Green leafy vegetables (spinach, asparagus, broccoli etc.) and legumes
• Fruits (orange, grapefruit) and juices
• Fortified grain products, nuts, meats
Deficiency:
• Decreased dietary intake & decreased intestinal absorption.
• Increased requirements.
-Pregnant women (at risk)
 pregnancy significantly increases folate
requirement. Folate deficiency during pregnancy
can results in neural tube defects (NTDs).
-Nursing mother losses of folate in milk during lactation.
• Megaloblastic & macrocytic anemia.
Toxicity:
• No evidence (natural dietary folate).
• In supplements or fortified foods. Masking/conceal of existing vitamin
B12 deficiency  neurological disorders.
• Pernicious anemia – neuropathy may be precipitated.
VITAMIN B12 (COBALAMIN)
Stable form & use therapeutically
Function:
• Biosynthesis of nucleic acids (together with folic acid)
• Red blood cell maturation
• Involved with folate metabolism & central nervous system metabolism
Absorption
1st – HCl in stomach separates vitamin B12 from the protein in foods
2nd - Vitamin B12 combines with intrinsic factor (protein made by the
stomach) and absorbed by the body.
Sources:
• Found naturally in a wide variety of animal products.
• Liver, clams, fish, meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and other dairy products.
• Fortified foods - breakfast cereals, nutritional yeasts.
Deficiency:
• Person with pernicious anemia (cannot make intrinsic factor.
 trouble absorbing vitamin B12 from foods.
• Tiredness, weakness, constipation, loss of appetite, weight loss, and
megaloblastic anemia.
• Neurologic deterioration (nerve damage)
Toxicity:
• Diarrhea
• Itching skin, outbreaks of acne and rosacea
VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
L-ascorbic acid &

L-dehydroascorbic acid
Function:
• Forming collagen, a protein that gives structure to bones, cartilage,
muscle, and blood vessels.
• Maintain capillaries, bones, and teeth.
• Strengthens tissues and improves wound healing and resistance to
infection.
• Aids in the absorption of iron.
• Powerful antioxidants.
Sources:
• Fresh fruits and leafy vegetables (guava, mango, papaya, citrus fruits,
cabbage, mustard leaves and spinach), potato and tomato.
• Meat, fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products.
• Ascorbic acid is the least stable of all vitamins and is easily destroyed
during processing and storage. Juices are good foods to be fortified with
ascorbic acid because their acidity reduces ascorbic acid destruction.
Deficiency:
• Scurvy
• Follicular hyperkeratosis, swollen and inflamed
gums, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and
eyes, loss of hair and dry itchy skin.
Toxicity:
• Nausea
• Abdominal cramps
• Diarrhea
• Possible formation of kidney stones
MINERALS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

● Classify macro and micro-minerals
● Explain their action and function / role in metabolism
● State the sources of the minerals and recommended dietary
allowances (RDA)
● Discuss the symptoms of deficiency and overdose of some
minerals (Clinical condition in relation to their deficiency)
MINERALS
• Dietary minerals are actually chemical elements.
MAJOR MINERALS TRACE MINERALS
• Calcium
• Iron • Manganese
• Phosphorus • Iodine • Cobalt
• Magnesium • Fluoride • Selenium
• Sodium • Zinc • Chromium
• Potassium • Copper
• Chlorine
MINERALS
MAJOR MINERALS TRACE MINERALS
• Present and needed in larger amounts • Present and needed in relatively small
in the body amounts in the body
• Need to consume >100mg per day • Need to consume <100mg per day
(>20mg)
• At least 5 grams of the mineral in the • The body contains less than 5 grams
body total
MINERALS
Important roles in overall health and well-being.
• Assist in chemical reactions in cells
• Crucial to immune system function
• Fluid balance
• Nutrient transport into cells
• Help skeletal muscle contract
• Maintain heart beat
• Major constituents of structures such as teeth and bones (e.g. Ca, P, Mg)
• Important components of body fluids (e.g. Na, K, Cl)
• Cofactors for specific enzymes or components of proteins and hormones (e.g.
Fe, P, I)
Function Food Sources Deficiency Toxicity RDA
Nutrient (US)
Calcium Structural component Milk & dairy products Reduce peak Excessive 1000mg/
(Ca) of bones and teeth, Fish (sardines and bone mass & calcification of day
cell membrane anchovies), beans and content bone,
integrity, bean products (dhal, (increase risk soft tissue;
neuromuscular tofu and tempeh), of hypercalcemia-
activity, endocrine vegetables (spinach, osteoporosis) vomiting,
secretory function, watercress, mustard lethargy
blood coagulation. leaves, cekur manis,
tapioca leaves, kailan
and broccoli)
Phosphorus Structural component Red meat, milk and Phosphate accelerated 700mg/
(P) disease
of bones and cell dairy products, fish, depletion day
membranes, energy poultry, legumes and unusual progression
metabolism, buffers other grain products. – effects renal, (impaired kidney
intracellular fluid, neuromuscular, function) and
skeletal systems, linked to
muscle and nerve
blood increased risk of
function chemistries adverse health
Nutrient (US)
Magnesium Structural component Spinach, legumes, Muscle Diarrhea, 420mg/
(Mg) of bones, cofactor for nuts, seeds, tremors, transient day
enzymes requiring ATP wholegrains, convulsions, hypocalcemia
(glycolysis, fatty acid avocado tetany, hyper-
oxidation & amino acid or
metabolism), synthesis Hypoflexia
RNA & replication DNA,
neuromuscular
transmission, calcium
metabolism.
Sodium Regulate acid-base Sodium chloride (hyponatremia) (hypernatremia) 1500mg/
(Na) equilibrium (table salt), Lethargy, nausea, day
and osmotic pressure abundant in most confusion, and vomiting,
of body fluids, foods except fatigue. weakness, loss
membrane potential— fruit. of appetite,
muscle and nerve intense thirst,
function. confusion,
kidney
damage.
Nutrient (US)
Potassium Helps regulate acid- Fruits especially (hypokalemia) (hyperkalemia 4700mg/
(K) base equilibrium and orange, bananas, Fatigue, muscle ) day
osmotic pressure of and dried fruits, spasms, Arrhythmia.
body fluids, influences yogurt, potatoes, weakness or Severe cases
muscle activity, meat, fish, poultry, cramping, can lead to
irregular
especially cardiac soy products, death.
heartbeat,
muscle vegetables constipation,
nausea, or
vomiting
Chlorine Helps regulate acid- Table salt (hypochloremia) (hyperchloremia) 2300mg/
(Cl) base equilibrium and day
osmotic pressure
of body fluids,
component of gastric
juices

Basic of Nutrition/ Nutrients Ii: Hikmah Mohamad Idi Foundation Biochemistry Sem 2/2021

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Basic of Nutrition/ Nutrients Ii: Hikmah Mohamad Idi Foundation Biochemistry Sem 2/2021

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BASIC OF

At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

• Preformed vitamin A  retinol and its

Non-essential nutrient - body can synthesize it with the help of sunlight.

• Tocopherols & tocotrienols

Active form – Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)

• primary form of the vitamin is as an integral component of the

• Active coenzyme form  Pyridoxal 5’ phosphate (PLP) &

• Folic acid or Folate

Stable form & use therapeutically

L-ascorbic acid &

At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

MAJOR MINERALS TRACE MINERALS

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