VITAMINS

Vitamins may be regarded as organic

compounds required in the diet in small
amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum
growth and health of the organism.
 Vitamin A

• Three different compounds with vitamin A

activity :
 Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid
• β-carotenes (provitaminA) are found in
plants.
BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS
• Retinol and retinoic acid regulate the
protein synthesis and thus involved in the
cell growth and differentiaition.

• Vitamin A is essential to maintain healthy

epithelial tissue.

• retinol is necessary for the synthesis of

Certain glycoprotieins
• Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in the
synthesis of transferrin (iron transport
protein.)

•Vitamin A is essential for the maintenance

of proper immune system

• Cholesterol synthesis requires vitamin A.

• β-carotene function as antioxidants and
reduce the risk of cancers initiated by free
radicals and strong oxidants.

• β –carotene is found to be beneficial to

prevent heart attacks.
 Recommended dietary allowance
(RDA)
• adults : 1000 retinol equivalents (3500 IU)
for man and around 800 retinol
equivalents (2500) for woman.

• The requirements increases in growing

childern, pregnant woman and lactating
mothers.
 Vitamin A deficiency
• The deficiency manifestations are related
to the eyes, skin and growth.
• Deficiency manifestation of the eyes:
 night blindness (nyctalopia), is one of the
earliest symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.
Difficult to see in dim light- as dark
adaptation time is increased.
• Severe deficiency of vitamin A leads to
xeropthalmia. This is characterized by
dryness in conjuctiva and cornea,
keratinization of epithelial cells.
• Bitot’s spot : greyish white triangular
plaques adherent to conjunctiva
• If xeropthalmia persists for a long time,
corneal ulceration and degeneration occur.
This results in the destruction of cornea, a
condition referred to as keratomalacia,
causing total blindness.
Effect on Growth:
results in growth retardation due to impairment
in skeletal formation.
Effect on Reproduction :
Degeneration of germinal epithelium leads to
sterility in males.
Effect on Skin and epithelial cells :
The skins becomes rough and dry.
Keratinization of epithelial cells of
gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and
respiratory tract is noticed. This leads to
increased bacterial infection.
 Hypervitaminosis A
• Excessive consumption of vitamin A leads
to toxicity.
• The symptoms of hypervitaminosis A
include dermatitis (drying and redness of
skin), enlargement of liver, skeletal
decalcification, tenderness of long bones,
loss of weight, irritability, loss of hair, joint
pains etc.
 Vitamin D

 Two forms :
• Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) (from plants)
• Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) (in animals)
 Biochemical functions
• Calcitriol (1, 25- dihydrocholecalciferol) is
the biologically active form of vitamin D.

• Calcitriol acts at 3 different tissues

(intestine, kidney and bone)
• Action of calcitriol on the intestine:
calcitriol increases absorption of calcium
and phosphate in small intestine.
• Action of calcitriol on the bone:
• Calcitriol is essential for bone formation.
• Action of calcitriol on the kidney:
• Calcitriol decreases the excretion of
calcium and phosphate through the
kidneys
 Recommended Dietary Allowance
• Preschool children : 10 μg (400 IU)/day
• Older children/ adults : 5-10μg(200 IU)/day
• Pregnancy/lactation : 10 μg (400 IU)/day
• Persons between 50-60 yrs age:400
IU/day
• Senior citizens (above 60yrs): 600IU/day
 Deficiency symptoms

• Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in children

and osteomalacia in adults.
 Clinical features of rickets
• Bone soft
• Bone growth decreases
• Bone deformities (weightbearing bones
bend)
• Bow legs, pigeon chest,rickety rosary
• Short stature
 Clinical features of
osteomalacia
• Soft bone
• Bone pain
• Bones are prone to fracture easily
 Hypervitaminosis D

• Vitamin D is the most toxic in overdoses.

• Toxic effects- demineralization of bone
(resorption) and increased calcium
absorption from the intestine,
hypercalcemia, loss of appetite, nausea,
increased thirst, loss of weight.
 Vitamin E
• Vitamin E (tocopherol) is a naturally
occuring antioxidant.
• α- tocopherols is the most active.
Biochemical Functions

• Most of the functions of vitamin E are

related to its antioxidant property.
• It prevents the non-enzymatic oxidations of
various cell components (e.g unsaturated
fatty acids) by oxidants such as superoxide
(O2.-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2).
 It maintains membrane structure and
integrity of the cell.
 It protects RBC from hemolysis by
oxidizing agent (e.g H2O2).
 It maintains proper reproductive
function.
 It increases the synthesis of heme .
 It is required for cellular respiration
through electron transport chain .
 It prevents from chronic diseases such
as cancer .
 RDA of vit E
• Man : 10 mg
• Woman : 8 mg
 Deficiency of vitE
• Sterility
• Degenerative changes in muscle
• Megaloblastic Anemia
• Changes in CNS
 Toxicity of vit.E
• No toxic effect has been reported even
after ingestion of 300 mg/day of vit E for
23 days
 VITAMIN K

Vitamin K exists in 3 forms:

• vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) (plants).
• Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) (synthesised by
intestinal bacteria)
•Vitamin K3 (menadione) (synthetic form)
Biochemical functions
 It helps in blood clotting process by
helping in activation of blood clotting factors
II (prothrombin) ,VII ,IX and X.

It helps to activate osteocalcin (a calcium

binding protein present in the bone) and
helps in bone formation.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
• Strictly speaking there is no RDA for
vitamin K,
• Accordingly , the suggested RDA for an
adult is 70-140 μg/day.
 Deficiency of vitaminK

Causes for deficiency

 lack of absorption in intestine

loss of vitamin into feces
prolonged antibiotics intake (killing of
intestinal flora).
 Features
• lack of active prothrombin in the circulation
• blood coagulation is adversely affected
•The individual bleeds profusely even for
minor injuries
•The blood clotting time is increased.
 Hypervitaminosis K
• Hemolytic anemia
• Jaundice
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
• Ascorbic acid is a hexose derivative
• It is a strong reducing agent.
• L-ascorbic acid is the active form
• D-Ascorbic acid is inactive.
 Biochemical functions

 Collagen formation: vitamin C plays role in

synthesis collagen from protocollagen.
 Bone formation: vitamin C is required for bone
formation.
 Iron and hemoglobin metaboilsm: It enhances
iron absorption and also is useful in the
reconversion of methemoglobin to hemoglogin.
• Vitamin C helps in tryptophan metabolism and tyrosine
metabolism

• Folic acid metabolism: It is involved in

the formation of the active form of folic
acids.
• It helps in synthesis of corticosteroid
hormones.
• asorbic acid is a strong antioxidant.
• It enhances the synthesis of
immunoglobulins (antibodies)
• It reduces the risk of cancer, cataract, and
coronary heart diseases.
 RDA
• About 60 to 70 mg per day
 Deficiency symptoms
• The deficiency of ascorbic acid result in
the Scurvy.
• This disease is characterized by :
 spongy & swollen gums
 loose teeth
 anemia,
 fragile blood vessels,.
• decreased immunocompetence
• sluggish hormonal function of adrenal
cortex and gonads
• haemorrage etc
 Thiamine (vitamin B1)
• Also called anti- beri beri or antineuritic
vitamin.
• It has a specific coenzyme, thiamine
pyrophosphate (TPP)
 Biochemical function
• TPP is connected with the energy
releasing reactions in the carbohydrate
metabolism.
• TPP activates the enzymes transketolase,
pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase.
• TPP plays an important role in the
transmission of nerve impulse.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
• adults : 1-1.5 mg/day
• children: 0.7-1.2 mg/day.
Deficiency symptoms
BERIBERI

Wet beri – beri , dry beri-beri occur, Infantile

beri-beri
Wet Beri – Beri
• edema of legs, face, trunk and serous
cavities.
•Breathlessness and palpitation
•The heart becomes weak and death may
occur.
Dry beri-beri :
• peripheral neutritis.
• Edema is not commonly seen.
• The muscles become progressively weak
and walking becomes difficult.
• The affected individuals depend on
support to walk and become bedridden
and may even die if not treated.
Infantile Beri-Beri
•This is seen in infants born to mothers
suffering form thiamine deficiency.
• Infantile beri-beri is characterized by
sleeplessness, restlessness, vomiting ,
convulsions
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
coenzymes of riboflavin
• Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and
• flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

Biochemical functions
The flavin coenzymes ( FAD & FMN)
participate in many redox reactions
responsible for energy production
(RDA)
adult : 1.2-1.7 mg/day
Deficiency symptoms
• cheilosis (inflammation of lips)
• glossitis (tongue smooth and purplish)
•Angular stomatitis (inflammation at the
angle of mouth)
• dermatitis.
 NIACIN
• also known as pellagra preventive factor

Coenzymes Of Niacin
• NAD+
• NADP
Biochemical Functions
The coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ are
involved in a variety of oxidation –reduction
reactions
(RDA)
adult: 15-20 mg
children: around 10-15 mg
Deficiency symptoms
Niacin deficiency results in a condition
Called pellagra
•Dermatitis :
is usually found in the areas of the skin
exposed to sunlight (neck , dorsal part of
feet, ankle and part of face)
• Diarrhea : loose stool, often with blood
and muscus
• Dementia :
 degeneration of nervous tissues.
 include anxiety , irritability , poor memory,
insomnia etc.
 PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
• used to collectively represent the three
compounds
• pyridoxine
•pyridoxal and
•pyridoxamine

coenzyme of vit B6 : pyridoxal

phosphate (PLP)
• Pyridoxal phosphate participates in
reactions like transamination,
decarboxylation, deamination,
transsulfuration
• Pyridoxal phosphate is required for the
synthesis of heme
• The synthesis of niacin coenzymes from
tryptophan is dependent on PLP.
• PLP plays important role in the
metabolism of sulphur containing amino
acids.
• It helps in glycogenolysis process
 RDA
• adult : 2- 2.2mg/day.
• During lactation, pregnancy and old age,
an intake of 2.5mg/day is recommended.
 Deficiency symptoms
 neurological symtoms such as
depression, irritability, nervousness and
mental confusion.
Convulsions and peripheral neuropathy
are observed in severe deficiency.

 hypochromic microcytic anamia

 BIOTIN

Also known as anti-egg white injury factor,

vitamin B7 or vitamin H
Biochemical functions
• Biotin serves as a carrier of CO2 in
carboxylation reactions in the metabolism of
carbohydrates & lipids

• It acts as cofactor for enzymes like

pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl coA
carboxylase etc
(RDA)
100-300 mg/day ( for adults).
Deficiency symptoms
• include anemia , loss of appetite, nausea,
dermatitis, glossitis etc.
• also causes depression , muscle pain and
dermatitis.
 PANTOTHENIC ACID

Coenzyme of pantothenic acid :

CoA/coenzyme A
 Biochemical functions

• Coenzyme A serves as a carrier of

activated acetyl or acyl groups.
•It is the component of enzyme that
synthesises fatty acids
(RDA)
5-10 mg (for adults)
 Deficiency symptoms
Burning Feet Syndrome
• pain and numbness in the toes,
sleeplessness, fatigue etc.
• also results in anemia, fatty liver,
decreased steroid synthesis etc.
•
• Folic Acid
•The active form of folic acid is
tetrahydrofolate (THF or FH4).
• FH4 is synthesized from folic acid by the
enzyme dihydrofolate reductase
Biochemical functions
Tetrahydrofolate (THF) is actively involved
in the one carbon metabolism.
THF serves as an acceptor or donor of
one carbon units (formyl , methyl etc)in
variety of reactions involving amino acid and
nucleotide metabolism.
• THF helps in the synthesis of several
compounds :
Purines (carbon 2,8) which are
incorporated into DNA and RNA.
 deoxythymidylic acid (dTMP) involved in
the synthesis of DNA.
Glycine serine ,ethanolamine and choline
N-formylmethionine, the inititator of protein
biosynthesis is formed.
(RDA)
• adults : 200 μg.
• pregnancy (400 μg / day) and lactation
(300 μg/day).
Deficiency symptoms
causes :
• pregnant women
•lactating women
•women on oral contraceptives
• chronic alcoholics
• inadequate dietary intake
•defective absorption
 features of folic acid deficiency
(megaloblastic anemia)
•
• decreased production of purines & dTMP
• impairment of DNA synthesis
• RBC maturation slows down leading to
macrocytic RBC
• dividing cells in bone marrow forms
megaloblasts
• macrocytic anemia with megaloblastic
changes in bone marrow indicates folate
deficiency
VITAMIN B12
 CHEMISTRY
it consist of corrin ring with central
cobalt atom.

Three forms:
cyanocobalamine
hydroxycobalamine
nitrocobalamine
TWO COENZYMES FORMS OF
VITAMINB12

5’-deoxyadenosyl cobalamine-
cyanide is replaced by 5’-deoxyadenosine.

methylcobalamine- cyanide is replaced by

methyl group.
functions of vitB12
SYNTHESIS OF METHIONINE FROM
HOMOCYSTEINE.

N⁵-METHYL THF THF

METHYLCOBALAMINE

HOMOCYSTEINE
METHIONINE
HOMOCYSTEINE METHYLTRANSFERASE
 VITAMIN B12
causes of deficiency
 autoimmune destruction of gastric parietal
cells that secrete intrinsic factor.
 hereditary malabsorption of vitamin B12.
 partial or total gastrectomy.
 insufficient production of intrinsic factor.
 dietary deficiency of vitamin B12.
• Deficiency of B12 leads to pernicious
anemia
 Features of pernicious anemia
• Low Hb levels
• Decreased no. of RBC
• Neurological manifestations
• Neuronal degeneration and demyelination
of nervous system
• Paresthesia of fingers & toes, confusion,
loss of memory & even psychosis
• Methylmalonic aciduria
• Impairment of fatty acid synthesis in liver,
brain