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Function
The Automotive brakes:
• Slows or stops a moving vehicle
• Keeps the vehicle stationary once it
has stopped using friction

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The basic layout of a hydraulic braking system

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 Brake systems

1. Front-and-rear split system

2. Diagonally split system

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Front-and-rear split system

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Diagonally split system

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 Energy conversion
• Stopping the vehicle within the smallest possible distance is done
by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat energy
which is dissipated into the atmosphere.

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 Kinetic energy:

• It is the force that tends to keep the vehicle moving.

Or simply, it is the energy of motion.
During braking operation the kinetic energy must be
dissipated as heat.
K.E = ½ mV2 (Kg.m2/s2) = 1 Joule
 The kinetic energy doubles as the weight doubles.
 It increases four times as speed doubles.

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 Coefficient of friction

• The maximum retarding force applied by the brakes

at the wheels, F, depends upon the coefficient of
friction between the road and the tire „µ“, and the
component of the weight of the vehicle on the wheel,
„W“, i.e.,
• F=µW
Hence, Coefficient of friction = Friction force
Normal force
µ=F
W
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 …Coefficient of friction
While it requires about 70 pounds (lbs) of effort to
slide a 100-pound block of rubber across a floor, a
100 pound block of ice requires an effort of only about
2 pounds.
Since the weight of the two blocks is the same, it is
the type of material in contact that makes the
difference.

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 Problems If 100% efficient
(coefficient of friction unity)
• Might injure the passengers due sudden stopping of
the vehicle.
• Cause load to slide forward when brakes are applied,
tending to break the driver´s cabin (Goods vehicles).
• Rapid wear of tyres and brake linings takes place, and
• There is always a risk of losing vehicle control.

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 Hence
• The brake efficiencies in general use vary from 50% to 80%,
which enable the vehicle to stop within reasonable distance.
• However, the minimum allowable limit of brake efficiency for
any vehicle is 50% for foot brake and 30% for hand brake.

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 During emergency braking:
• The reaction of the driver, and
• Response time of the brakes also play an important part.

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Hence,
The total stoping distance in case of emergency
braking may be divided into 3 parts:
1.Distance transversed during the reaction time of the
driver.
2.Distance transversed during the time elapsed between
the driver pressing the brake pedal and the brake
being actually applied at the wheels.
3.Net stopping distance, depending upon the
deceleration. (with 60% effiency and 30Km/h is 6m
and 6m for 1 and 2)
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 The actual stopping distance
The actual stopping distance depends on:
 Vehicle speed
 Condition of the road surface
 Condition of the tyre tread
 Coefficient of friction b/n tyre and road
 Coefficient of friction b/n brake drum and
brake lining or b/n disc and friction pad
 Brake force applied by the driver
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 Static and kinetic friction

Defn: Friction is the resistance to motion between two

objects that are in contact with each other.
Types:
 Static friction
 Kinetic friction

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 Friction in the car brakes:
 It is the friction between the tyres and the road that
results in the car`s stopping.

If the brakes are applied so hard that the wheels lock, the
friction between the tyres and the road is kinetic friction.

 When the brakes are applied a little less hard, so the

wheels are permitted to continue rotating, the
friction between the tires and the road is static
friction. The tyre surface is not skidding on the road
but is rolling on it. Since this produces static friction,
there is considerably greater braking effect.
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 Cont ...
• The car will stop more quickly if the brakes are just
hard enough to get maximum static friction. i.e.,
• Maximum braking power occurs the wheels are
braked just before the locking point or point of
impeding skid.
• If the brakes are applied harder than this, the
wheels will lock, the tyres will slide, and the lower
kinetic friction will result.

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Vehicle driven at a constant speed
Vehicle speed = Wheel speed

Stable braking

Brake system Resistance < Resistance b/n tires and road

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 The wheels will lock up if:

Effects of locked wheels

If the front wheels lock up, it will become
impossible to steer the car.
If the rear wheels lock up, the differences in the
coefficients of friction between the left and right
sides on the road surface will cause a tail spin
to occur. 21
 Effective braking force
• The effective braking force of a vehicle occurs at ground
level.
• Vehicle weight and kinetic energy of the vehicle act
through center of gravity which is above ground level.
 This causes the vehicle to tend to pitch forward as the brakes
are applied.
• Pitching forward effectively transfers some of the vehicle
weight from the rear wheels to the front wheels.

• The front brakes, therefore must absorb more kineic

energy than the rear brakes 22
• The maximum amount of weight transfer is given by:
• Wt = h W
B
Where:
Wt = weight transferred, N
 = coefficient of friction
h = height of C.G. from the ground, m.
W = vehicle gross weight , N
B = wheel base, m

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 ... This weight (Wt)
• This weight is added to the static weight on the front wheels
and
• Subtracted from the static weight on the rear wheels.

Wheelbase
• It refers to the centre-to-centre distance
between the wheels.

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 Hydraulics
 Hydraulics is the study of liquids in engineering. A liquid is a
fluid that will flow under gravity to take up the shape of its
container.
 A fluid is something that does not have a definite shape;
therefore, liquids and gases are fluids.
 All fluids conform to the shape of their container.

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 Hydraulic system

 A hydraulic system uses a liquid to

transmit motion or pressure from one
point to another.

 Modern brake sytems are hydraulic.

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 Pascal's law
• States that pressure applied to a confined
fluid at any point is transmitted
undiminished throughout the fluid in all
directions and acts upon every part of the
confining vessel at right angles to its interior
surfaces and equally upon equal areas.

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• The pressure is the same through out the fluid if the weight of the
fluid is ignored, or in other words, the pressure in a fluid is equal
at the same horizontal level.
• The pressure acts equally in all directions at the same time.
• The pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with
the fluid.

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Hydraulic pressure is distributed equally in all
directions

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 The hydraulic pressure is the same, but the
applied force can be changed by changing the
piston size.

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Hydraulic

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Hydraulic System action

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P = F/A
P = F1/A1 = F2/A2
V1 = V2 : That is:
 Displaced liquid volume of pumping cylinder is equal to the volume V2
pumped to the working cylinder.

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Hence:
A1 S1 = A2 S2
W1 = W2 i.e., the work performed at the pumping piston is
equal to the work performed by the working piston. 
F1 xS1 = F2 xS2
F1/F2 = S2/S1 = A1/A2 = D21/D22

Where:
D, and d, the diameter of large and small pistons respectively
  S1, and S2 distance travelled by piston 1 and 2 respectively
The area of the piston is determined by using the formula:
3.14 X R2

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Same line pressure to all wheels

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 Heat fade
• Since brake lining material is a poor conductor of heat, most of the
heat goes into the brake drum or disc during braking.
• Under severe use, the coefficient of friction between the drum and
the lining is much lower at these high temperatures and hence
additional pedal pressure is required.
• After a number of severe stops or after holding the brakes on a long
down hill grade, a point is eventually reached when the coefficient
of friction drops so low that little braking effect is available. This is
called brake fade.

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Classification of brakes by design or purpose

•  Service Brake, and

• Parking/or hand brake. It is also called emergency brake because it
is also applied when the service brake fails

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Classification by its working media :

 Hydraulics – operates on
brake oil
 Pneumatics – use air
 Mechanical – use cable /wire/
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 Hydraulic brake fluid
• It is the medium, which transfers force in the brake system.
• Standards: Brake fluids can be based on the following standards.
• SAEJ 1703
• FMVSS 116 – Federal motor vehicle safety
standards
• ISO 4925

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 Requirements of brake fluid:
•  Must remain liquid over a wide range of temperature
• Should maintain the lowest possible viscosity at very low
temperatures
• Must resist corrosion
• Must lubricate the hydraulic system moving parts
• Must provide resistance to thermal stress i.e, must not evaporate
easily
• Must be compatible with rubber seals and other components.
• Must be able to absorb water (hygroscope). Otherwise, the water
could freeze and cause brake failure.
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 Types as per FMVSS 116
• DOT-3,
• DOT-4, and
• DOT-5
where DOT – Department of Transportation

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 Important
 Some liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, and oil attack
rubber seals and cause them to swell.
 Brake fluids except DOT-5 are aggressive for skins and
painted surfaces.
 Poisons if it is swallowed. Symptoms are:
 headache,
 dizziness,
 stomach pains,
 vomiting,
 diarrhoea, &
 loss of consciousness. 42
• Most widely used DOT 3
• It is glycol based liquid. Glycol is a type of alcohol
• Hygroscopic (absorb moisture from the air) in nature
• Clear to amber in colour

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 DOT 4
• Hygroscopic but absorbs moisture at a slower rate than DOT-3
• Similar in type with DOT-3
• Has higher boiling point than DOT-3
• Can be used in place of DOT-3 but not the vice versa

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 DOT 5
Has higher boiling point than DOT 3 and DOT 4
• It is silicon based liquid
• Purple in colour when new
• Does not absorb water or moisture (non hygroscopic)
• Less corrosive to hydraulic system components
• It is not compatible with DOT-3 and DOT-4
• It has a long-term shelf life and will not harm the paint
finish. These are the major problems with DOT 3 and
DOT 4 fluids. 45
Test as per FMSS116 SAEJ
1703
Requirements/ Date DOT 3 DOT 4 DOT5,5.1 11.83

Dry boiling point min. 0C 205 230 260 205

Wet boiling point min 0C 140 155 180 140

Cold viscosity at –400c 1500 1800 900 1800

mm2/s

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 Brake fluid level switch
• It comes on when the brake fluid level is below the lower limit
• Uses a magnetic float
• The lamp goes on when the parking brake is applied and on diesel
engines (CI), when the vacuum switch goes on.

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