Understanding The Basic Theory Behind Vibration Analysis: Characteristics

Understanding The Basic Theory
Behind Vibration Analysis

• General Introduction (What IS Vibration)
• Conventions
• Characteristics
o Amplitude
o Frequency
o Phase
• Acquiring & Displaying Data
• Database Setup
• Data Plots
o Trend Plots
o FFT Plots
o Time Domain Plots
o Envelope Spectra
• Spectrum Interpretation (Troubleshooting Charts)
General Introduction
• What Is Vibration ?
• What Causes It ?
• Why Measure It ?
• What Does The Transducer Measure ?
• What Are "Vibration Characteristics" We Measure ?
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase
What Is Vibration ?
Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It

can also be referred to as a "cyclical" movement
What Is Vibration Caused By ?
Imperfections in the Machine:
Design Assembly
Manufactu
Operation
re
Installatio Maintenan
n ce
What Are Some Common Machine Problems

That Generate Mechanical Vibration:
Misalignment Unbalance
Worn belts & pulleys Bearing Defects
Aerodynamic
Hydraulic Forces
Forces
Reciprocating
Reaction Forces
Forces
Bent Shafts Rubbing
Gear Problems Housing Distortion
Certain Electrical
Frictional Forces
Problems
What Are Some Common Machine Problems

That Amplify Mechanical Vibration (But Don't Cause It):
Looseness Resonance
Why Do We Measure Vibration ?
1. Assess the condition (primarily the bearings) of a machine. By
performing this task effectively, we can eliminate catastrophic
failures due to component degradation.
2. Diagnose the root cause(s) of any excessive (destructive)
vibration. By performing this task effectively, we can extend the
life of bearings and other components that are absorbing the
stresses and fatiguing forces that are causing the symptom of
excessive vibration.
It should be understood that short-term event-based failures (i.e.
loss of lubrication, sudden fracture of a component, etc.) are not
protected against via any program that only collects data
periodically. The time between onset and failure in these cases -
which are rare - may take only minutes (in extreme cases), hours,
days or weeks. For example, many programs are based on monthly
data collection. Any event occurring during that month interval may
cause failure prior to the next data collection. This is not a failure of
the program or the technology any more than driving a fork truck
into a machine and destroying it is. The good news is that the vast
majority of potential and actual failures will NOT fall into this
category and DO lend themselves to being detected, monitored and
corrected through a well-run vibration program.
What Does The Transducer Actually Detect ?
Actual Bearing A Transducer Mounted A Transducer Mounted

Movement: Vertically "Sees" Only Horizontally "Sees" Only
Elliptical Vertical Movement
Horizontal Movement
What Vibration "Characteristics" Do We Measure ?
Amplitude Tells Us:
How Much Movement Occurs

Frequency Tells Us:
How Often Movement Occurs

Phase Tells Us:
In What Direction Is The Movement

)Relative To Other Locations On The Machine At A Given Moment In Time (
Conventions
• What Are "Conventions" ?
• Bearing Numbering (Position) Conventions
• Position Naming Conventions
• Directional Conventions
• Belt Drives
• Vertical Units
What Are "Conventions" ?
Conventions are standards that you set or adopt that apply to every
machine and application in the program. These conventions simplify
training of new personnel and make sure everyone involved in the
program is on the same page. There are at least three basic
conventions that should be set up. They are:
1. Bearing Numbering ("Positions”)

2. Position Naming
3. Direction Definitions
Common Bearing Numbering Conventions
• Most programs use numbers to identify bearings. Some use letters
instead. By FAR the most common convention is to begin the
numbering (or lettering) on the non-drive end of the "driver"
component (motor, turbine, etc.). That bearing will be denoted as
Position "1", or Position "A".
• Following the drive train in a logical manner, the next bearing reached
will be Position "2" or "B". That bearing will be found at the drive end
of the motor or turbine (the driver component).
• Continuing to logically follow the drive train, the next bearing reached
will be Position "3" or "C". This bearing will almost certainly be on the
"driven" component.
• With a typical 4-bearing machine, the last bearing reached would be
Position "4" or "D".
The image below shows a typical 4-bearing, belt driven fan with the
bearings numbered.
Common Bearing Numbering Conventions
What about components that have more than 2 bearings such as
gearboxes. The image at right (which does NOT show the motor
containing bearings 1 & 2) shows a typical numbering convention for
components with more than 2 bearings. Again, it is based on following
the drive train in a logical manner. The important thing is to set up a
simple, straight forward convention and adhere to it consistently. You
can use other people's ideas and conventions or develop one yourself
that makes sense to your people for your machines.
The gearbox shown here is a "double reduction" gearbox (it has two
separate gear meshes). This gearbox has three (3) shaft speeds (the
input shaft speed, the speed of the shaft supported by bearings 5&6 and
the output shaft speed) and two (2) gear mesh frequencies.
Common Position Naming Conventions
Although bearing numbering is (and should be) the primary identifier of the position of the
reading, bearing names are often used as well. Since there are a variety of common names used
for naming the different bearing positions - several for each position, in fact - a list of the
common ones is put forth here. There are no right or wrong ones - the only important aspect is
complete consistency in your usage.
• Common Position 1 Names
 Outboard motor bearing
 Opposite drive end motor bearing
 Opposite shaft end motor bearing
 Inboard motor bearing
 Drive end motor bearing
 Shaft end motor bearing
 Inboard motor bearing
 Drive end motor bearing
 Shaft end motor bearing
 Outboard ?? bearing
 Opposite drive end ?? bearing
 Opposite shaft end ?? Bearing
You may have applications that do not fall neatly into the 4-bearing machine category. Long drive lines
with dozens of bearings, gearboxes like the one shown on the previous page, multi-stage machines, etc.
may each require their own unique solution for bearing naming. In the case of a long drive line, the
bearing may be named to coincide with the piece of equipment along that drive line that bearing is
closest to. Conversely, you may decide to rely strictly on position numbers in that case and not use
position names at all. Terms such as "Intermediate Shaft" may be used. There is no single, universal
naming convention that will apply to all machine configurations. Remember the objective:
Consistency Is The Key
Common Direction Naming Conventions
Directional conventions are also of the utmost importance to set up and
use. A simple, common sense convention insures that whomever is
collecting the data is aware of the correct transducer location and direction.
It also means the analyst, if different than the data collection technician,
can analyze the data with confidence. This convention goes to the heart of
one of the most important aspects of a vibration program - the
repeatability of readings from one data collection to the next (what good is
a trend without good repeatability ?). Its importance goes hand-in-hand
with the importance of making sure the exact transducer locations are
clearly marked. The convention begins with ONE hard rule:
Axial Direction is always, Always, ALWAYS parallel to shaft axis
Let's start with horizontal, direct drive machines. These machines are the
most simple to define.
1. Axial Direction - Runs along the axis of the machine's shaft (parallel to the shaft & ground).
2. Vertical Direction - The shortest line possible connecting the machine shaft and the machine base.
3. Horizontal Direction - A line drawn out from the machine shaft that runs exactly parallel to the ground.
Belt drives can be oriented in any direction and thereby require a directional convention.
The convention shown here has been adopted for some very simple reasons which help
illustrate not only its usefulness but the importance of conventions in general:
• Reason #1: The belt (reaction) forces are usually directed in-line (parallel) with the
belts.
• Reason #2: In order to capture these belt related vibrations and separate closely
matched frequencies, higher resolution readings are set up in the database parallel to
the belts. Details of this subject - spectrum resolution - are covered in the
"Spectrum" section.
• Reason #3: To make it easier to both set up the database and to analyze collected
data, these higher resolution readings are always taken horizontally.
For these reasons, a convention is used that defines "parallel to the belts" as horizontal is
used. By default, that leaves the measurement taken perpendicular to the belts defined as
Vertical. By adopting this convention, both collection and analysis are simplified - a stated
objective of using conventions.
Vertical machines present another opportunity to assign a directional convention since

parallel to the shaft (axial) is now straight up out of the ground. Since we must
adhere to our one hard and fast rule for directional conventions, the axial direction
remains parallel to the shaft (perpendicular to the ground; what would be defined as
vertical on a typical, horizontal direct-drive machines).
That leaves vertical and horizontal to be defined. For reasons similar to those
discussed previously for the belt drive convention, it is recommended that horizontal
be defined as parallel to the discharge of the machine. That would leave vertical as
being defined as perpendicular to the discharge (and parallel to the ground).
Vibration Characteristics
Amplitude
• What Does Amplitude Tell Us ?
• What Are Amplitude "Units" ?
• Measuring Displacement Units
• The Displacement "Sine Wave"
• Measuring Velocity Units
• Velocity vs. Displacement
• The Velocity Sine Wave
• Measuring Acceleration Units
• Acceleration vs. Displacement
• The Acceleration Sine Wave
What Does Amplitude Tell Us ?
Before we answer that question, let's keep in mind what exactly

we are measuring. Everyone taking this class has touched a part
of an operating machine (even if it is your car or even your lawn
mower) and felt the back and forth movement. Because that
movement is back and forth, it is defined as "cyclical", or
"sinusoidal", and we call it "vibration". Obviously, we would want
to quantify the amount of movement. That measurement is
known as "amplitude". However, there are several different ways
of quantifying the amount and that is what we will discuss in the
following pages.
What Does Amplitude Tell Us ?
• The 'amplitude' is a measure of the amount of movement.

• The amount of movement is related to the severity of the vibration.
Simply put, it measures:

How Much ?
What Are Amplitude "Units" ?
There are several different ways to measure "how much". These different ways are known as
amplitude "units". The transducer is the mechanism we use to measure vibration and, in the case
of rolling element bearings (i.e. ball bearings, etc.), we can assume the transducer, being affixed
to the bearing housing, is going to move very close to the same amount as the shaft itself since a
rolling element bearing has very small internal clearances. The first amplitude unit is the simplest
to visualize and understand:
• Displacement - measures the total distance the transducer (bearing) travels back and forth
during one 'cycle' of movement (a 'cycle' is the process of moving from one extreme to the
other and back again to the starting point).
To understand the second amplitude unit, you must first understand that if a bearing is going to
move back and forth a certain distance in a certain amount of time (the 'period'), it is going to
achieve a certain maximum, or 'peak', speed (velocity) during that cycle. That speed is
constantly changing as it goes from 0 (when the bearing is displaced a maximum amount in one
direction and has stopped momentarily to reverse direction) to some maximum value it achieves
as it passes the center point in the movement. Once it passes that center point, the bearing
starts slowing down until the speed again reaches 0 as it reaches the maximum displacement in
the opposite direction.
• Velocity - measures the maximum speed the transducer achieves during a cycle.
To understand the third amplitude unit, you must understand that to change velocity, a body
must be accelerated or decelerated. To speed a car up, you press the "accelerator" pedal. To
slow it down, you remove your foot from the accelerator and let frictional forces (wind resistance,
road surface, brakes) take over. On machines, this "acceleration force" can be visualized as the
reaction of the bearing housing and surrounding structure to being pushed (displaced) in one
direction - the housing pushes back because it wants to assume a neutral, or "at-rest", position.
• Acceleration - measures the force(s) that are causing the back and forth movement.
Now let's look at each of these units more in-depth and see how they are inter-related.
Measuring "How Much" in Displacement Units
Displacement measures the length of the "trip" back and forth from (in this case) +X
to -X (2X would be the total distance travelled - the "peak-to-peak displacement").
One of these "trips" is known as a "cycle" of vibration. The sequence of images about
to be presented show the bearing at various important points during a single cycle
with the transducer oriented vertically (remember, the transducer only "sees"
movement in the direction of its orientation, or axis).
Since this movement must occur over time, when we measure it we plot the amount
(amplitude) on the y-axis and the time taken (period) on the x-axis. The resulting
shape, in its simplest form, is called a "periodic signal", a "sinusoid" or a "sine wave".
That is the S-shape you see below the word "cycle" in the image at right. Mechanical
vibration generates a wave shape that is rarely as simple as what we see here but
the intricacies of processing more complex data will be covered in later sections.
• The "At-Rest" position ("0") is the position the bearing would

assume if the machine was not running.
• During a single (1) cycle, the bearing passes this position twice -
once travelling towards +X and once travelling towards -X.
• We'll begin our sequence of images with the bearing just passing
the '0' point moving towards '+X'.
• The red ball (seen at the very ends of the sine wave) indicates the
amplitude level during the cycle.
• The bearing has just reached the '+X' position and has stopped
momentarily to reverse direction.
• The bearing is 1/4 of the way through the cycle (1/4 of a shaft
revolution).
• The bearing is now passing the '0' position again moving towards '-X'.
• The red ball has completed 1/2 cycle (1/2 shaft revolution).
• The bearing has now reached the '-X' position - its maximum
displacement in the '-' direction.
• The bearing has again stopped to reverse direction.
• The red ball has completed 3/4 of a cycle (3/4 of a shaft revolution).
• The bearing is now back where it started, having completed one "cycle" of
movement.
• We want to know the total length of the "trip" being made by the bearing.
• Traveling from the "+X" position to the "-X" means the total distance
traveled = 2X). That is known as Peak-to-Peak signal detection and that
is how displacement amplitudes should be measured.
• Since displacement measures the amount a component is being bent back
and forth, it is a measure of the STRESS that the bearing structure is
being subjected to. It is, in other words, an amplitude unit that is
particularly sensitive to the likelihood of a stress failure occurring.
• Stress failures are most likely to occur on slow speed equipment and are
not a very common failure mode (hence we do not normally use
displacement amplitudes as a primary monitoring tool).
The "Displacement Sine Wave"
English or 'Imperial' Units: Mils (1 mil = 0.001")

Metric Units: Microns (1 um = 0.001 mm)
Conversion: 1 Mil = 25.4 um
Measuring "How Much" In Velocity Units
• What is a "velocity" amplitude ? Technically, velocity measures how

much the displacement is changing over a period of time.
• The units of measure are inches per second or millimeters per
second.
• With sinusoidal motion the velocity constantly changes as the
displacement changes.
• Since the velocity is constantly changing over time, measuring
velocity amplitude over time generates a sine wave just as
measuring displacement amplitude does.
The "Velocity Sinusoid“ VS. The "Displacement Sinusoid"
As we began discussing the relationship between velocity and

displacement on previous pages, let's now look at a direct
comparison between the two and see how they relate to one
another at the most significant points in the cycle:
• The bearing is shown here at its maximum displacement of '-X'.

• Velocity must be zero at this moment since the bearing must stop
momentarily to reverse direction.
• From this moment until the bearing passes the "at-rest" (0)
position, the bearing will be speeding up (the velocity amplitude
will be increasing).
The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

direction:
• The displacement is "+X".

• The speed (velocity) is 0 since it has (again) momentarily stopped
to reverse direction.
• From this moment until the bearing passes the 'at-rest' position,
the bearing will be speeding up (accelerating - the velocity
amplitude will be increasing).
The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

direction:
• The displacement is "+X".

• The speed (velocity) is 0 since it has (again) momentarily stopped
to reverse direction.
• From this moment until the bearing passes the 'at-rest' position,
the bearing will be speeding up (accelerating - the velocity
amplitude will be increasing).
The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position again moving moving

in the "-" direction:
• The displacement amplitude is "0".
• Velocity is at a "-" peak since the bearing has reached its maximum
speed (the speed is the same as previously reached when traveling
in the "+" direction - only the direction has changed).
• From this moment until the "-X" position is reached, the bearing
will be slowing down ("decelerating" - the velocity amplitude will be
decreasing).
• With displacement, we were concerned with the total distance travelled (stress-related failures).
• With velocity, we are only concerned with the maximum speed (velocity amplitude) reached
during that trip. It matters not which direction the bearing is moving in.
• Since we are concerned only with the maximum velocity reached, we use Peak signal detection
(not Peak-to-Peak).
• Velocity measures the how often (frequency) the stress (displacement) is being applied.
• Velocity is measure of the likelihood of FATIGUE being the mode of failure.
• Fatigue failures are by far and away the most common cause of general machinery failures.
• Velocity is the best monitoring tool for general machines.
• Speciality machines, components or specific problems may not be best monitored by velocity.
• Examples of machines, components and problems not suited to velocity are gears and certain
electrical symtoms (i.e. very high frequency vibration: >120,000 cycles per minute) and very
slow-speed equipment (< 100 rpm).
• It should be noted that even though velocity is suited to monitor problems in the 60kcpm -
150kcpm range, it may be advantageous to use our third amplitude unit - acceleration - in those
cases.
The "Velocity Sine Wave"
English or "Imperial": Inches per Second (ips -or- in/sec)

Metric: Millimeters per Second (mm/sec)
Conversion: 1 ips = 25.4 mm/sec
Measuring "How Much" In Acceleration Units
What exactly is "acceleration" ? Acceleration measures the rate of change of
velocity (how quickly the velocity is changing). There are two methods of
applying an acceleration force (deceleration is simply a negative
acceleration):
1. A Pushing Action similar to you compressing a spring between your hands. The
more you compress a spring, the more force it pushes back with. If you were to
push a pillow block bearing away from its "at-rest" position, it would push back. If
you went farther, it would push back more. That is a simple way to visualize the
acceleration force we are measuring. The amount of movement at a particular
frequency is a combination of the force being generated by the rotation of the rotor
(unbalance, for intsance, is simply a centrifugal force due to a heavy spot on a
rotor), the stiffness and masses of the materials and structure involved and other
variables that are structure related.
2. A Striking Action similar to you hitting a nail with a hammer. This action can be
extremely destructive since it can cause structural flaws (cracks, for instance) to
develop. Consider a jack hammer. It is the striking action that breaks up the
cement. One example In the case of a rolling element bearing, a rolling element
may pass a defect on one of the races and an impact results similar to hitting a
pothole with your car.
What Is The Difference Between
Pushing Forces And Striking Forces ?
What exactly is "acceleration" ? Acceleration measures the rate of change of
velocity (how quickly the velocity is changing). There are two methods of
applying an acceleration force (deceleration is simply a negative
acceleration):
1. Both are destructive but one is far more destructive - the striking action.
2. The Pushing Action causes sinusoidal motion. Since the velocity
changes steadily (creates a sine wave), the acceleration also changes
steadily and plotting it generates a sine wave just as displacement and
velocity do. This is the type of acceleration we will be discussing in the
following pages.
3. The Striking Action causes instantaneous, transient motion. Consider
striking something with a hammer. The velocity undergoes a nearly
instantaneous increase when the hammer strikes. Any movement then
dampens out until the next impact. This type of acceleration must be
measured differently and will be covered in a later section on
"enveloping signals".
The "Acceleration Sinusoid“ VS. The "Displacement Sinusoid"
Let's see how displacement and acceleration relate to one another at the significant points in the cycle:
• The bearing is shown here at its maximum displacement of "-X". If you were pushing the bearing
housing down to this position, in which direction would the bearing housing be pushing back ?
• The housing structure in this position will be pushing back in the "+" direction since it is trying to return
the bearing to the "at-rest" position.
• As mentioned before, the "amplitude" we measure is a combination of many variables but what do we
actually measure ?
• The bearing is achieving a certain peak velocity once per cycle. That velocity is a combination of the
amount of movement (displacement) and the time it takes for one complete cycle (from which we
calculate frequency). The less time a cycle takes, the higher the frequency of the vibration and the more
force it requires to generate a particular peak velocity. In other words, going from 0 velocity to 1 in/sec
(25 mm/sec) 1000 times a minute requires a lot less force than doing it 100,000 times per minute. The
forces being applied to make that happen may destroy a component before metal fatigue (what velocity
is sensitive to) even becomes a factor.
• That makes acceleration an amplitude unit that is particularly sensitive to the likelihood of a component
failing due to the forces being applied to it due to the machine's operation.
• When either displacement peak is reached, an acceleration peak is reached in the opposite direction.
• From the moment shown until the '0' position is reached, the acceleration amplitude decreasing.
The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position moving in the "+"

direction.
• At the instant the bearing passes "0", the acceleration force
(amplitude) is 0 since the bearing is located in its at-rest position.
• From this moment until the "+X" position is reached the bearing
acceleration amplitude is increasing to a peak value in the "-"
direction (remember, as it is being displaced increasingly in the "+"
direction, it is increasingly pushing back towards the at-rest
position).
The bearing has reached the "+X" position (the "+" displacement
peak):
• The acceleration force (amplitude) is at a maximum (peak) pushing

DOWN towards the "0" position (it has reached its maximum value
in the "-" direction).
• From this moment until the "0" position is reached the bearing
acceleration amplitude is decreasing as the bearing approaches its
at-rest position.
The bearing is passing the at-rest position moving in the "-"

direction.
• At the moment the bearing passes the at-rest position, the
acceleration force (amplitude) is 0.
• From this moment until the "-X" position is reached the bearing
acceleration amplitude is increasing to a peak value in the "+"
direction (remember, as it is being displaced increasingly in the "-"
direction, it is increasingly pushing back towards the at-rest
position).
• As with velocity, we were concerned only with the maximum value reached
- not the direction.
• As with velocity, we use Peak signal detection.
• Acceleration measures how rapidly the velocity is changing.
• Acceleration is measure of the likelihood of APPLIED FORCE being the
mode of failure.
• Applied force failures occur at higher frequencies - almost invariably
60,000 cycles per minute and higher. There are a limited number of high
frequency generating machinery problems.
• Those problems include primarily rolling element bearing defects and
gears.
The "Acceleration Sine Wave"
English or Metric - G's (1 g = force of gravity)

Frequency
• What Does Frequency Tell Us ?
• How Does Frequency Relate To Amplitude ?
• How Do Displacement, Velocity & Frequency Relate ?
• Practical Effect On A Bearing Of Velocity Vs. Displacement
• How Amplitude Units Relate to Different Failure Modes
• Stress Failures vs. Fatigue Failures
• What Failure Mode Are Acceleration Units Sensitive To
• Where Are Acceleration Amplitudes Useful
• Recommended Frequency Ranges For Different Amplitude Units
• When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s)
• Formulas Relating Amplitude & Frequency
• Examples Of When To Use Which Unit(s)
• General Equipment Amplitude Guidelines
• Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment
What Does Frequency Tell Us ?
• By taking the reciprocal of how many seconds a single cycle takes

(reciprocal of "seconds per cycle" is "cycles per second"), the number of
cycles occurring in a given period of time such as a second or minute can
be calculated.
• For example, if a cycle takes 1/50th of a second, the frequency is 50 cycles
per second (50 "Hertz"), or 3000 cycles per minute (3000 cpm or 3kcpm).
• That number - how many cycles occur in a given time period - is known as
the vibration "frequency".
Simply put, it measures:

How Often ?
• Machines will generate mechanical vibration at multiples (harmonics) of
their running speeds. This type of vibration is called "synchronous"
vibration.
• For example, unbalance causes a force that moves the bearing (causes
vibration) in any direction (plane) at a rate of once per revolution (1x
RPM). That movement occurs at exactly once per rev - not 1.1x per rev,
not 0.9x per rev - ONCE per revolution.
• A pump with 5 vanes on the impeller can generate hydraulic pulses (which
can be measured as mechanical vibration) at 5 times per rev (5x rpm) -
not 4.9x per rev, not 5.1x per rev - exactly 5 times per revolution.
• Different mechanical problems (unbalance, misalignment, etc.) tend to
generate their own characteristic vibration 'patterns'. Because the effect
each problem has on the vibration signal we measure, they each tend to
generate vibration at specific (rpm related) frequencies that the analyst
learns to recognize and look for.
• Other vibration generators may not be tied specifically to the machine's
rotational speed.
• Bearing problems and electrical problems, for example, tend to generate
vibrations at specific frequencies other than exact multiples (harmonics) of
running speed. This type of vibration is referred to as "non-synchronous"
or "sub-synchronous" (below 1x rpm) vibration.
• By correctly linking the frequency to the various possible sources, the
source of the problem can be identified.
Frequency Identifies The Vibration Source

How is Frequency Calculated ?
Measure the time it takes for 1 cycle:
(Seconds / Cycle)
Take the reciprocal of that to get the frequency:
Cycles / Second (Hertz)
Hertz x 60 = Cycles / Minute (CPM)
Since cpm is easier to relate to RPM, it is more commonly
used and recommended for ease of use.
How Does Frequency Relate to Amplitude ?
The frequency of any periodic signal is mathematically related to each of the amplitude
units: displacement, velocity and acceleration - if you know any two of these variables, you
can mathematically calculate the other two. For instance, if you know:
1. How far a bearing is moving back and forth (the displacement amplitude), and
2. How much time it takes to complete the trip (the 'cycle', from which the frequency is
derived)
• A bearing vibrates 10 mils (254 microns) in 0.1 seconds. We know two of the variables:
o The pk-pk displacement is 10 mils.
o The period is 0.1 seconds (time required for 1 cycle).
Frequency is represented as the number of cycles during a certain period - a second or a

minute. The bearing will make 10 of these trips in one second. Since the total distance
traveled in one second is 100 mils, your average speed is 100 mils/sec (0.1 inches per
second or 2.5 mm/sec). Of course, that is the average speed. Since you are constantly
speeding up or slowing down, your peak speed would be about twice that average speed
(0.2 in/sec or 5 mm/sec).
Let's look more closely at the relationship between these 4 variables.
How Do Displacement, Velocity & Frequency Relate ?
As stated, there are some simple mathematical formulas that relate the frequency of the
vibration, the amount of movement (displacement), the speed of movement (velocity) and
the force generated during the movement (acceleration). The mathematics involved is
always handled by the software and hardware but it is illustrative to understand the simple
principles involved. Let's first look at the relationship between frequency, displacement
amplitude and velocity amplitude.
Consider:
• A bearing moves back and forth 10 mils (pk-pk displacement).
• The bearing moves at 10 cycles per minute (the 'frequency).
• By setting those two variables, you establish a third - namely the speed at which the
bearing must travel to satisfy those two conditions.
Consider:
• Another bearing is moving at 10 mils pk-pk.
• This bearing moves at 70 cycles per minute.
What is the speed of this bearing vs. the first bearing to satisfy those conditions ?
• This bearing must have a peak speed of 7x the first bearing. The relationship between the 3 is
linear (e.g. if the frequency increases 7x and the displacement remains same, the velocity must
increase 7x).
So increasing the frequency 7x while leaving the displacement the same results in increasing the
velocity at which the bearing must move by 7x.
The point here is simple. There is a direct relationship between the frequency, the displacement
and the velocity. Knowing two - any two - allows the third to be mathematically calculated (along
with a constant value). Without getting into further examples, the same direct relationship exists
between frequency, velocity and acceleration. Therefore, all four of these variables are related -
knowing any two allows the other two to be calculated.
Let's look at the practical aspect of the relationship in a more graphic way.
Practical Effect On A Bearing Of Velocity Vs. Displacement
These animations graphically illustrate the previous example. The displacement in each
is the same but the bearing on the right is completing 7 cycles for each cycle
completed by the bearing on the left.
But what we are really interested in, of course, is the effect of the vibration on the
bearing's life and the machine's health. Again, knowing nothing about vibration
analysis and using only your common sense and knowledge of machines, which
bearing will fail in a shorter period of time ? It doesn't take a vibration 'expert' to
recognize that it will be the bearing on the right. But since the displacement (a
measure of stress) is constant, the determining factor must be something else.
It is actually two failure modes that are increasing in likelihood with the frequency:
• Another bearing is moving at 10 mils pk-pk.
• This bearing moves at 70 cycles per minute.
But since the units are all related, why don't we just use a single amplitude unit and
simplify things ?
How Amplitude Units Relate to Different Failure Modes
The reason has to do with each amplitude unit's sensitivity to different
modes of machinery failures. In other words, each unit has a specific
usefulness in monitoring machinery health. There are three types of failure
causing effects that we are monitoring with vibration:
• Stress (bending a component excessively causes it to fail)
• Fatigue (something simply wears out over time)
• Force (the 'pushing' and/or 'striking' actions being applied to cause the
movement)
The graph below shows the sensitivity of each amplitude unit to the
likelihood of a failure over a wide range of frequencies.
• Notice that at low frequencies (primarily below 300

cpm or 5 Hz), displacement is the most sensitive
unit to the likelihood of a failure. That is due to the
fact that a stress failure (something being bent
back and forth until it breaks) is the most likely
failure mode at those low frequencies - the fatigue
and applied forces become, as frequency
approaches 0, simply too low to cause a failure.
• Once you get above 300 cpm, the most likely
failure mode increasingly becomes the 'fatigue'
mode (to which velocity is the most sensitive unit).
How Amplitude Units Relate to Different Failure Modes
Fatigue failures basically occur when a component simply wears out - it tires
of the repeated back and forth movement (even a relatively small total
distance) over an extended period of time and many, many cycles. Between
about 300 cpm and 120,000 cpm (5 - 2000 Hz), fatigue is the most likely
failure mode and therefore velocity is the most effective and reliable
amplitude unit to monitor with.
• Once you reach 120,000 cpm (2000 Hz), the most likely failure mode is
'force'-related. What is a force-related failure ? When you reach these very,
very high frequencies (remember, you are dealing with moving an entire
rotor structure back and forth 2000 times per second or more), you are
dealing with massive amounts of force to move that structure back and
forth even a tiny distance at such a tremendously high frequency.
Therefore, it is that tremendous pushing or striking action that causes the
failure.
It must be understood that there are areas of the chart where the units
overlap and two conditions (stress and fatigue effects, for instance) exist.
Stress Failures vs. Fatigue Failures
The chart at right shows the number of failures vs.
the number of running hours. Notice that a relatively
high number of failures occur during the first hours
of runtime. These failures are known as 'infant
mortality' because they occur shortly after start-up.
In other words, a machine that is new or rebuilt is
started up and has severe problems. Within a few
hours, days or possibly weeks, a catastrophic failure
occurs. If the failure is mechanical in nature (it could
also be electrical or lubrication related), stress will
often be a primary cause of failure - components
being bent back and forth so much that something
simply breaks.
However, once a machine runs for a certain number of hours (rotations), it
becomes stress relieved and the likelihood of failure changes to fatigue - a
component wearing out. Of course, if the movement (vibration) is high but
not quite high enough to cause an 'infant mortality' stress failure, the fatigue
failure will still occur in a relatively short period of time (which is one reason
why the number of failures on the curve doesn't ever quite get to zero).
So if displacement is sensitive to stress, and velocity is sensitive to fatigue,
where do the acceleration amplitude units fit in ?
What Failure Mode Are Acceleration Units Sensitive To ?
Acceleration amplitude is the trickiest to understand. To begin with, you must
understand that due to the nature of sinusoidal motion (the back and forth action), the
velocity is constantly changing. It goes from zero to a peak back to 0 back to the peak
and so on. To change the velocity of something, acceleration must be applied. To
speed your car up, you apply the accelerator. To slow your car down, you apply the
brake.
• Acceleration measures the rate of change of velocity.
• Velocity is changed when a PUSHING or STRIKING action is applied.
• Pushing or striking something is applying a 'force' and acceleration is, of course,
force.
So why is acceleration used in the high frequency range ?
• The rate of change in velocity (acceleration) is more affected by frequency - how
often something is changing direction - than displacement - how far it is moving.
• Components moving at high frequencies will never fail due to stress (displacement)
because the displacement amplitude is very small.
• Although there are frequencies where velocity and acceleration overlap in their
sensitivity to failures, the higher the frequency involved (especially above about
120,000 cpm), the less likely a fatigue failure is and the more likely it is that the
forces being applied that are causing the movement will be responsible for any
failure that might occur.
• Acceleration is sensitive to the likelihood of a FORCE related failure. In other words,
a failure due to the pushing and/or striking action the component is being subjected
to.
Let's look at one simple example to illustrate where acceleration is of use.
Where Are Acceleration Amplitudes Useful ?
Consider a high speed centrifugal compressor. This machine, through its normal
operation, generates some incredibly high vibration frequencies - well over 1,000,000
cpm (16.67kHz) in certain cases depending on the specifics of the machine
components. These vibrations are generated by the gear teeth meshing together and
referred to as gear mesh frequency.
Let's briefly look at the following example:
• Consider a machine that generates a gear mesh frequency of 1,080,000 cpm

(18kHz).
• Let's assume that there is some vibration (movement) occurring at the gear meshing
frequency due to the interaction of the gear teeth.
• Let's further assume that the amount of physical movement - the distance back and
forth, so to speak - is 3 millionths of an inch (0.003 mils, or 0.076 um).
• Everyone can visualize the tiny, tiny amount of movement generated.
• However, to cause the structure (rotor) to move back and forth even such an
incredibly tiny amount 18,000 times per second requires a force equal to 50x the
force of gravity. That's right, 50 g's.
• The failure will occur due to that force being applied repeatedly.
Let's look at some examples relating the different amplitude units to the likely failure
mode.
Recommended Frequency Ranges for Different Amplitude Units
Displacement Units: < 600 cpm (< 10 Hz)

There are instances where the use of displacement amplitudes is essential even at very
high frequencies.
Velocity Units: 300 - 120,000 cpm (5 - 2,000 Hz)
Acceleration Units: > 60,000 cpm (> 1,000 Hz)

When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s)
Every machine has certain operational characteristics which must be considered
when creating the database. Similar machines have similar characteristics and
similar (many times identical) database point set-ups. The critical question that
must be asked for every machine for which you are creating a database is simply
what problems may develop on this machine and what vibration frequencies will
be generated by each of these problems.
You may need multiple measurements on a
particular location to get the level of
protection you would like.
In other words, you must create each database point with a specific purpose in
mind.
Consider a motor driving some component connected with a coupling. What
problems may occur on the motor and what vibration frequencies will each
generate ?
• Mechanical influences (unbalance, misalignment, etc.) at 1x, 2x, and 3x rpm
(also be referred to as orders).
• Pumps can generate hydraulically-related vibration at the number of vanes x
rpm - vane pass frequency.
• Compressors do likewise at lobe pass and vane pass frequencies (to name only
2 types).
• Fans can generate at blade pass frequency.
• With rolling element bearings, vibration at 30kcpm - 50 x rpm (up to 150kcpm)
is typically generated during stages leading up to failure.
When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s) ?
Compressor Example
Consider the following example for which we will discuss the frequencies encountered: a
direct driven screw compressor with an input speed of 3580 rpm. The motor directly drives a
bull gear with 48 teeth which drives a pinion gear with 36 teeth. The rotor being driven by
the pinion gear has 4 lobes while the driven rotor has 6 lobes. To determine what
frequencies the potential problems may create, we need to specifically lay out the
frequencies that will be generated on this machine and consider what problems can develop
from the machine components. The machine schematic is shown here:
Let’s calculate exactly what frequencies need to
be monitored on the compressor end only:
Frequency Calculation Frequency Name
4773 rpm 3580 x 48T/36T 4-Lobe Rotor Speed

4-Lobe Pass
19092 cpm 4773 x 4
Frequency
3182 rpm 4773 x 4T/6T 6-Lobe Rotor Speed
6-Lobe Pass
19092 cpm 3182 x 6
Frequency
Bull Gear Mesh
171,840 cpm 3580 rpm x 48T
Freq:
Compressor Schematic
171840 cpm 4773 x 36T Pinion GMF Motor Speed = 3580 rpm
343,680 cpm 2 x GMF 2x GMF
515,520 cpm 3x GMF

When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s) ?
Compressor Example
So we need to monitor the compressor bearings over a range of frequencies
spanning 3182 cpm (1x 6-lobe rotor) to 515,520 cpm (3x gear mesh
frequency). Although it can technically be done with a single reading, using
only one amplitude unit would be a problem since velocity is no good at
515,520 cpm and acceleration is no good at 3182 cpm.
But why would using only one amplitude unit be a problem ? The answer
goes back to the relationship between the units and their sensitivity to
different failure modes.
Let's look at some examples.
Formulas Relating Amplitude & Frequency
As stated earlier, there are formulas that relating each of the amplitude units
to one another through the vibration frequency. The following just lists a few
of the possible variations. You should note that the software carries out the
formulas - the following pages attempt to illustrate the concept only.
Metric Units: Imperial Units:

Displacement = um Displacement = mils
Velocity = mm/sec Velocity = in/sec
Acceleration = g's Acceleration = g's
Frequency = cycles/min Frequency = cycles/min
Displacement = (19,231 x V) / F Displacement = (19,231 x V) / F
Velocity = 0.000052 x D x F Velocity = 0.000052 x D x F
Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x F Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F
Example #1:
A Bearing Vibrates 100 Mils Pk-Pk @ 30 cpm
Displacement @ 1x rpm = 2540 um Displacement @ 1x rpm = 100 mils
Metric Units: English Units:

V = 0.000052 x 2540 um x 30 cpm V = 0.000052 x 100 mils x 30 cpm
V = 4 mm/sec V = 0.16 ips

A = 0.0000107 x 4 x 30 A = 0.00027 x 0.16 x 30
A = 0.0013 g's A = 0.0013 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = HIGH
Fatigue = Low
Force = None
What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?

Velocity
Example #2:
A Bearing Vibrates 10 Mils Pk-Pk At 1000 cpm
Displacement @ 1x rpm = 250 um Displacement @ 1x rpm = 10 mils

V = 13 mm/sec V = 0.52 ips

A = 0.0000107 x 13 x 1000 A = 0.00027 x 0.52 x 1000
A = 0. 14 g's A = 0. 14 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = MODERATE
Fatigue = MODERATE
Force = None

Velocity
Why not displacement ?
Because it can also be used to monitor higher frequencies on this machine.
Example #3:
A Bearing Vibrates 3 Mils Pk-Pk At 9,000 cpm
Displacement @ 9,000 cpm = 75 um Displacement @ 9,000 cpm = 3 mils

V = 35.1 mm/sec V = 1.404 ips

A = 0.0000107 x 35.1 x 9,000 A = 0.00027 x 1.404 x 9,000
A = 3.41 g's A = 3.41 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = None
Fatigue = HIGH
Force = Low

Velocity
Example #4:
A Bearing Vibrates 0.2 Mils Pk-Pk At 60,000 cpm
Displacement @ 60,000 cpm = 5 um Displacement @ 60,000 cpm = 0.2 mils

V = 0.000052 x 5 um x 60,000 cpm V = 0.000052 x 0.2 mils x 60,000 cpm
V = 15.6 mm/sec V = 0.62 ips

A = 0.0000107 x 15.6 x 60,000 A = 0.00027 x 0.62 x 60,000
A = 10 g's A = 10 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = None
Fatigue = Moderate
Force = Moderate

Velocity or Acceleration
Example #5:
A High Speed Compressor Rotor Shaft
Vibrates 0.003 Mils Pk-Pk At 1,080,000 cpm
Displacement @ 1,080,000 cpm = 0.077 um Displacement @ 1,080,000 cpm = 0.003 mils
(7.7 millionths of a centimeter) (3 millionths of an inch)

V = 0.000052 x 0.077 um x 1,080,000 cpm V = 0.000052 x 0.003 mils x 1,080,000 cpm
V = 4.32 mm/sec V = 0.17 ips

A = 0.0000107 x 4.33 x 1,080,000 A = 0.00027 x 0.17 x 1,080,000
A = 50 g's A = 50 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = None
Fatigue = Low
Force = REALLY HIGH

Acceleration
General Equipment Amplitude Guidelines:
Before discussing amplitude guidelines it should be clearly understood that
these are only guidelines - a starting point to begin from. The best vibration
analysts get to know the normal vibration characteristics of their machines
and look for deviation from that norm. The values that follow here are
generally regarded in the categories shown but they are and should be
considered guidelines.
Displacement Units:
Must know frequency to assess severity. At very low

frequencies, even displacement amplitudes of 40 or
All
50 mils pk-pk or even more can be only moderately
Frequencies:
harmful to the bearing and the structural
components affected.
Note: The values listed here as guidelines for velocity and acceleration are
'peak' amplitudes. Equivalent RMS values are 30% lower.
Velocity Units:
Within Frequency Range: 300 - 120,000 cpm
Soft Supports Hard Supports

Condition
Metric English Metric English
< 4 mm/sec < 0.15 in/sec Very Good < 2.50 in/sec < 0.10 in/sec
4 - 12 mm/s 0.15 - 0.45 ips Satisfactory 2.5 - 7.5 mm/s 0.10 - 0.30 ips
12 - 17 mm/s 0.45 - 0.67 ips Fair 7.5 - 11.5 mm/s 0.30 - 0.45 ips
17 - 23 mm/s 0.67 - 0.90 ips Rough 11.5 - 16 mm/s 0.45 - 0.60 ips
> 23 mm/sec > 0.90 ips Destructive > 16 mm/s > 0.60 ips
Acceleration Units:
Below 30kcpm, the problem will be better monitored with Frequencies: < 30,000
velocity as the amplitude unit of choice. kcpm:
Between 30kcpm and 120kcpm, you must know frequency
Frequencies: 30k-
to fully judge the severity. Velocity can confidently be used
120kcpm:
as a partner unit in this range.
Good < 2.00 g's Frequencies: >
120kcpm:
Fair 2.0 - 5.0 g's
Rough 5.0 - 10.0 g's
Very Rough > 10.0 g's

Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment Types:
Slow Speed: Typically generates lower amplitudes. For shafts < 300 rpm, Time Domain
plots should be used.
Machine Tool or "Precision" equipment: Typically tolerates much lower amplitude
levels. Guidelines (vibration alarms) for each machine must be established. Since this
equipment usually involves keeping the finish quality within certain tolerances or
specifications, establishing a vibration level just below which those machines go "out-
of-tolerance" can be a very effective method. Bearings should be monitored regardless
of the overall machine condition.
Complex Vibration Generators: Typically generates higher amplitude levels: Refers to
machines that have large forces normally or a lot of vibration sources. High pressure,
lobe-type blowers (Roots, for instance) often involve motor frequencies, belt
frequencies, lobe pass frequencies, 2-rotor speeds, gear frequencies and aerodynamic
forces as well as loaded and unloaded conditions. The resulting vibration patterns can
be high relative to the General Machine amplitude references and yet normal for your
machine. Be careful in over-reacting. At least one manufacturer's vibration guidelines
are as follows:
Classification: Metric Units: mm/sec English Units: in/sec

Excellent < 11.4 < 0.45
Good 11.4 - 22.8 w / no peak > 11.4 0.45 - 0.90 w / no peak > 0.45
Fair 11.4 - 22.8 w / 1+ peaks > 11.4 0.45 - 0.90 w / 1+ peaks > 0.45
Rough > 22.8 w / no peak > 22.8 > 0.90 w / no peak > 0.90
Very Rough Peak(s) > 22.8 Peak(s) > 0.90
Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment Types:
Program Needs: Programs must be set up based on the needs of the
individual pieces of equipment. Unless your program has loads of
similar or identical pieces of equipment, a broad brush cannot
necessarily be used. The actual frequencies being generated on the
machines must be determined or at least estimated reasonably well.
That information should then be used to specify the plots and data
collected based on that. The successful analyst will also get to
"know" the machines and their typical vibration patterns. That
knowledge is possibly the analyst's strongest line of defense against
unexpected failures.
Phase
• What Does Phase Tell Us ?
• What Is Meant By "Direction" ?
• Rules For Measuring Phase And Phase Data Convention
• What Methods Are Used For Measuring Phase ?
• How Is Phase Measured With A Strobe Light ?
• What Is Phase Telling Us ?
• Radial Phase Analysis On A Single Bearing
o What Do These "Phase Angles" Mean ?
o Facts Established By Phase: Frequency Confirmation
o Facts Established By Phase: Rough Orbit Shape
o What Is The Significance Of "Orbit Shape"
• Radial Phase Analysis Across Adjacent Bearings

• Axial Phase Analysis On A Single Bearing: Planar vs. Twisting Motion
• Complete Axial Phase Analysis
• Understanding Transducer "Orientation"
• Most Common Use Of Phase: Diagnosing Misalignment
• How Amplitude Units Affect Phase
• How Is Phase Measured With A Photoeye
• What Is Time Synchronous Averaging ?
What Does Phase Tell Us ?
• Phase enables us to compare the relative direction of movement of various

locations on a machine.
Simply put, phase tells us:

What Direction ?
Still not clear ?
What Is Meant By What Direction ?
• Imagine a snapshot of a machine operating. In the snapshot, imagine
being able to see arrows drawn at each bearing indicating what direction
that bearing was moving in at that moment in time.
• From the snapshot, you can thereby determine if the bearings are moving
in the same direction at the same time (in unison or 'in phase') or not.
Phase helps determine how different locations on the machine (different

bearings, usually) are moving relative to one another
Simple Phase Analysis
Data Conventions
• In order to discuss phase at the most basic
level, we need a convention to use. Phase is
represented by the 360° of a circle. Since a
high degree of accuracy is not required in a
simple, general phase analysis (what we will
be discussing here), phase is most easily
referred to in terms of clock face numbers:
1 o'clock through 12 o'clock. The phase
"angle" is based on where the mark appears
Clock Face Numbers Use
(the red key in the example shown here) on
For Simple Phase Analysis
the clock face. It is shown here at 12 o'clock
but could appear at any angular location.
• Applications requiring more precise detail
(i.e. balancing or phase monitoring on a
turbine) will require the use of specific
angular references (0 - 359°).
What Methods Are Used for Measuring Phase ?
• A 'Phase-Triggering' Strobe Light. This type of strobe light differs in
two ways from a conventional, hand held strobe light:
o It either feeds frequency information (its flash rate) into the
analyzer or has its flash rate set by the analyzer.
o It can be triggered by a vibration signal from the analyzer.
• A Photoelectric Eye (or related mechanism that provides a 1x rpm
pulse from the shaft).
How Is Phase Measured With A Strobe Light ?
This involves several steps - each one designed to satisfy one of the
rules for measuring phase. We must start with a couple of assumptions.
• We have a machine with a 'problem' - higher than desired amplitude
at a particular frequency.
• The frequency we are concerned with in this case (for simplicity sake)
is 1x rpm.
Step #1 - Mount Transducer

• The first step in collecting a phase reading is to
place the transducer on the bearing in the
direction desired.
• The transducer provides the analyzer with the
vibration signal necessary (as per Rule #3).
Step #2 - Locate a Reference Mark

• Commonly a key or keyway, this mark is what
we will be using as our 'clock face' reference
when it shows up under the strobe flash (as per
Rule #4).
How Is Phase Measured With A Strobe Light ?
Step #3 - Tune the strobe to 1x rpm (the pertinent frequency)
• Tuning the strobe light properly will freeze
the shaft with 1 mark as shown here. Be
careful you haven't tuned it to 1/2 rpm since
that will also show 1 mark.
• By tuning the strobe light, you have told the
analyzer at which frequency we will be
measuring phase (as per Rule #2).
• With a strobe light (as opposed to a
photoeye). This allows the analyzer to focus
on a specific vibration signal - a relatively
clean sinusoid (since all other frequencies
are being filtered out) that is occurring at or
very close to (+/- 0.75%) the tuned
frequency.
• You can compare this to what a radio does -
it tunes to one frequency and filters all
others out.
What Is Phase Telling Us ?
So far, nothing. The strobe light is being triggered by an internal trigger on
either the analyzer or the light itself - it is acting exactly like a typical,
hand-held strobe light. There is one final step which must be performed:
• A switch (or keystroke) on either the analyzer or the strobe can be
activated which changes how the strobe is being triggered.
Once this switch activated, the strobe stops to using its internal trigger to
flash and starts to use the vibration sinusoid being detected. Therefore:
• Every time a peak signal is detected by the analyzer, it sends a signal to
the strobe light to flash.
• The strobe light therefore flashes at exactly the frequency of the vibration
being detected.
• If the vibration is being mechanically generated by the shaft (rotor), the
strobe will flash at an exact harmonic of running speed (1x rpm in our
example but it could be 2x, 3x or any higher harmonic) and the shaft
(mark) will freeze under the strobe flash.
• If the vibration is being generated by some other source - any other
source (bearings, electrical, other machines nearby, etc.), it will not flash
at an exact harmonic of running speed and the shaft will (mark) will not
freeze under the strobe flash.`
Let's look at a graphic example of how this process works and why it is
important.
Radial Phase Analysis Around A Single Bearing
Phase Angle #1
What is happening in the animation here ?
• The transducer is mounted vertically so the movement (vibration) being measured is vertical only.
• The red dot represents the "at-rest" position of the shaft.
• The black dot represents the center point of the shaft.
• There is a "heavy" spot on the rotor that causes a centrifugal force to be generated that results is
causing the shaft center point (the black dot) to rotate around the 'at-rest' center point (the red dot).
• The "+"peak' occurs when the bearing is displaced the maximum amount towards the transducer. In
other words, as the black dot passes the 12:00 position (passes the transducer).
• The location of the heavy spot can be determined at any moment in the shaft's rotation by imagining a
line drawn from the red dot directly through the black dot. This is, of course, not able to be seen in real
life on a real machine.
• What we can see is some "mark" (usually a key) that becomes visible under the flash of the strobe light
once per revolution (the yellow dot). This is our reference mark. The mark is 45° behind the heavy spot.
• In real life, we would not know where the mark is located relative to the heavy spot. However, we do
know that unless we do something to change the location or size of the heavy spot, those two positions
will not change relative to one another as we move the transducer. They will remain 45° apart.
Phase Angle #1
• With the transducer mounted vertically, the peak signal arrives when the
black dot is at the 12:00 position (0°).
• The strobe light is set up to flash when an amplitude peak arrives so it will
flash at that moment.
• When the strobe flashes, the key shows up at 10:30 (315°).
We now have 1 piece of phase data on this bearing at a frequency of 1x rpm:
• With the transducer mounted vertically, our phase angle is 10:30 (315°).
Phase Angle #2
What has been changed in this animation ?
• The transducer is mounted horizontally so the movement being measured is
horizontal only. Another way to say this would be that the transducer has been
moved 90°.
So now what is happening ?
• The peak signal will still be detected when the bearing is displaced the maximum
amount towards the transducer - as the black dot passes the 3:00 position (90°).
• The strobe light is set up to flash when an amplitude peak arrives so it will flash at
that moment.
• The mark remains 45° behind the heavy spot so when the strobe flashes, the mark
will show up at about 1:30.
We now have 2 pieces of phase data on this bearing at a frequency of 1x rpm:
• With the transducer vertical, our phase angle is 10:30
• With the transducer horizontal, our phase angle is 1:30
What Do These Phase Angles Mean ?
We have checked the radial vibration at 2 angular locations around a single
bearing. This has provided us with two valuable pieces of information. The
first is:
• When triggering the strobe light from the vibration signal, the shaft
appeared frozen. In other words, the mark was not rotating - it remained
stationary (even if it wobbled back and forth a bit).
What does this mean ?
• It means the vibration IS coming from this shaft. This is now established
as FACT - something only a phase reading can do (as we will see later in
the 'Plots' section).
What is the second piece of information ?
• When moving the transducer to a new angular location (moving from
horizontal to vertical is 90°), the location of the mark (the phase angle)
shifted the same amount (90°).
What does this mean ?
• The shaft is vibrating in a more circular orbit that typically indicates
unbalance.
Let's examine each of these facts more closely and see how they were
arrived at from the phase measurements we recorded.
Facts Established by Phase:
Frequency Confirmation
Fact #1: The vibration IS (or IS NOT) coming from the shaft
• First, you must remember that the strobe light is actually being triggered by the
vibration signal. Every time the analyzer detects a peak signal from the transducer,
it instructs the strobe light to flash. The strobe flash will, therefore, flash at exactly
the same rate as the vibration is occurring.
• Second, mechanical vibration - i.e. vibration being generated by the rotation of the
rotor - occurs only at exact multiples (harmonics) of the rotational speed (rpm).
These vibrations are known as synchronous vibrations.
• Third, sources of vibration other than the rotor - belts, bearings, electrical
vibrations and other non-synchronous vibration sources will not generate vibration
at exact multiples of the rotational speed. This is true regardless of how close they
are to being synchronous. Even if the adjacent machine is running at 0.1 rpm
different speed, it is still a different speed - it is still non-synchronous.
Since the strobe is flashing at exactly the vibration frequency being generated,
whether or not the mark (shaft) appears frozen under the strobe light reveals whether
the vibration is synchronous or non-synchronous. This test will be referred to as a:
Frequency Confirmation
Frequency confirmation simply means you are confirming the source of the vibration
is the rotor that appears frozen under the strobe flash and it is the ONE use for a
single phase reading.
Frequency confirmation is a simple test that requires only a few seconds to perform
but can be crucially important to the successful diagnosis of a machine's problem.
Rough Orbit Shape
Fact #2: Comparing the phase angles at 2 separate transducer locations
(vertical and horizontal in our example) allows you to make the rough
judgment of the shape of the orbit - one that is more circular or one that is
flatter in shape.
Before explaining this, you must understand what is meant by the 'shaft
orbit'. Consider the following:
• A shaft is generating vibration at only 1x rpm.

• The amplitude horizontally is 'X' ips or mm/sec.
• The amplitude vertically is exactly the same - 'X' ips
or mm/sec.
• In fact, no matter what direction the transducer is
oriented (pointed), the amplitude at 1x rpm is 'X' ips
or mm/sec.
• By plotting the recorded amplitude values in the
appropriate direction (Figure 1), you can plot the Figure 1
'orbit', or shape, of the shaft center point.
• In this particular example, the orbit is a circle. In the
'real' world, this would be virtually impossible.
Rough Orbit Shape
• Another shaft is generating vibration at only 1x rpm.
• The amplitude vertically is 80% of the horizontal
amplitude - 0.8(X) ips or mm/sec.
appropriate direction (Figure 2), you can again plot
the 'orbit', or shape, of the shaft center point.
• In this example, an elliptical orbit is plotted. These
relative amplitudes would not be considered unusual. Figure 2
• A third shaft is generating vibration at only 1x rpm.

• The amplitude vertically is 50% of the horizontal
amplitude - 0.5(X) ips or mm/sec.
appropriate direction (Figure 3), you can again plot
the 'orbit', or shape, of the shaft center point.
• In this example, an elliptical orbit is plotted. These
relative amplitudes would not be considered unusual. Figure 3
When the amplitudes are relatively equal, you can see how the 'orbit' approaches a
circle. But let's look at the other extreme. What if the horizontal amplitude were 'X'
and the vertical amplitude were very, very low - even 0.00 ips or mm/sec. That 'orbit'
would be a straight line - linear movement (vibration).
Rough Orbit Shape
(vertical and horizontal in our example) allows you to make the rough
judgment of the shape of the orbit - one that is more circular or one that is
flatter in shape.
So we have examined the extremes that are possible:
• Circular orbits (where the amplitudes are exactly the same regardless of
transducer direction)
• Linear orbits (where the amplitude is zero in one direction).
These extremes are equally unlikely. Everything in between is an ellipse. We can
therefore realistically use the rule of thumb that all orbits are elliptical.
However, it can be helpful in determining the nature of the problem to know
whether the orbit is approaching circular or linear (which, it should be noted,
can be better "quantified" by plotting amplitude values).
• When the transducer was in the vertical position, the
peak signal arrived at a specific moment and caused
the strobe to flash at that moment. Under this strobe
flash, the key showed up ay the 10:30 position (315°).
• When shifted to the horizontal position - 90° away -
the moment the peak signal arrived changed by 1/4
rotation - the same 90°. Under this strobe flash, the
key shows up at 1:30 (45°) - a shift of 90° from the
first phase reading. Vertical Transducer Location
Rough Orbit Shape
Because the movement shown here is very circular in
nature, the phase angle will change based on the
angular location of the transducer. Regardless of the
angular location you place the transducer at, the
peak signal will arrive as the black dot passes the
transducer location.
This type of orbit - an ellipse that approaches circular
- is characteristic of one of the most common
vibration problems: unbalance. When excessive
vibration is detected at 1x rpm (the only frequency Horizontal Transducer Location
unbalance generates vibration at), unbalance is one
of several possible sources. This type of phase test
can help differentiate between unbalance and the
other potential sources of the high vibration levels.
Rough Orbit Shape
(vertical and horizontal in our
example) allows you to make the rough judgement of the shape of the orbit
- one that is more circular or one that is flatter in shape.
• Now let's examine what a 'flatter' (more linear) orbit might reveal during a
phase analysis:
Now let's examine what a 'flatter' (more linear) orbit might reveal during a
phase analysis:
• The animation at right is similar to the previous without

the 'strobe flashes'. The red dot still represents the 'at
rest' shaft center point and the black dot is still the
actual shaft center point during operation.
• Note the black dot passes just above and below the red
dot. The amplitude difference is on the scale of 10:1
with horizontal being higher. Linear Vibration
Rough Orbit Shape
• The red arrow actually represents the phase angle. It follows the direction
of displacement and is always pointing from the red dot towards the black
dot. In the previous animation (where we had a circular orbit), we didn't
show an arrow from the red dot to the black dot - we showed a once per
revolution 'flash' that occurred based on where the transducer was but the
flash occurred only when the red dot, black dot and transducer were in
that order in a straight line.
• You can see that the arrow remains relatively steady for relatively long
periods of time (as it passes 3:00 and 9:00) during the revolution.
• Under this condition, you could place a transducer anywhere between
about 1:00 and 5:00 and observe basically the same phase angle - the
arrow moves very little as the black dot passes that area.
• Likewise, you could place a transducer anywhere between about 7:00 and
11:00 and observe basically the same phase angle but it would be 180°
different than if the transducer were between 1:00 and 5:00.
• If the transducer were located between 5:00 and 7:00 (150°-210°) or
between 11:00 and 1:00 (330°-30°), you would get an unsteady phase
reading although it would NOT rotate - only wobble back and forth.
What Is The Significance Of The Orbit Shape ?
A more circular ellipse (i.e. when you move the transducer a certain angular
amount, the mark shifts an equal amount) usually indicates:
• More of an 'unbalance' type vibration force (centrifugal force that is fairly

equal all the way around)
A flatter ellipse (i.e. when you move the transducer a certain angular
amount, the mark either does not shift or shifts 180°) usually indicates:
• Flatter, more 'linear' motion indicates problems that affect a specific

direction such as looseness, resonance, and (on belt or chain drives) bent
shafts or eccentricity.
These are Rules of Thumb and a number of variables such as structural

strength (which can influence amplitude values in one direction versus
another) much be considered. Phase analysis, however, can provide some
important information related to how the components are moving.
Radial Phase Analysis Across Two Adjacent Bearings
Up to now, we have only analyzed radial phase
readings taken on a single bearing at different
angular locations. What about comparing adjacent
bearings ? Phase is still used as a "relative"
reading.
• When comparing phase angles between bearings,
you compare phase angles with the transducer
mounted in the same angular location (vertical to Bearings "In-Phase"
vertical, horizontal to horizontal, etc.).
Analysis will reveal how the bearings are moving relative to one another at
the frequency being measured.
• In the animation here, the yellow balls represent heavy spots on the rotor.
Since they are located at similar angular locations, the forces generated
will cause the bearings to move together, or "in-phase".
• If a transducer were mounted vertically on either of the two bearings, the
strobe would flash as the heavy spot passes the 12:00 position since the
peak signal arrives at that moment.
• Our mark (the red key on shaft) is in the same position (i.e. same phase
angle) regardless of which bearing the transducer is mounted on.
• The bearings are in-phase.
• In the animation shown here, the heavy spots are
opposite one another.
• The heavy spot on the left hub affects the left
bearing more than the right.
• The heavy spot on the right hub affects the right
bearing more than the left.
• If the transducer were mounted vertically on the
right bearing, the strobe would flash as the heavy Bearings "Out-of-Phase"
spot on the right passed the 12:00 position. That
occurs when the key is just past 12:00.
• If the transducer were mounted vertically on the
left bearing, the strobe would flash as the heavy
spot on the left passed the 12:00 position. That
occurs when the key is just past 6:00.
• The bearings, therefore, are 180° 'out-of phase'.
What is the significance of this ?
• The significance is in balancing the rotor. Unlike the previous example, a 2-
plane balance such as this requires 2 separate corrections (solutions) - one
for the left side heavy spot and one for the right side heavy spot - while
the 1-plane (the previous example) requires only 1 correction.
Phase analysis can also reveal some important information
when performed in the axial direction. Let's examine what is
happening in the animation here:
• There are 6 transducers mounted axially - the movement
being measured is axial only.
• We are measuring phase in the same manner as for radial
phase - namely triggering the strobe light at a peak "Planar" Motion
amplitude and freezing some reference mark (a key ?).
• With the transducers mounted in this manner, the peak signal will arrive when
the bearing is displaced its maximum to the right.
• Each of the 6 transducers are displaced the maximum amount to the right at
the same moment.
• Therefore, regardless of which transducer you are analyzing from, the phase
angle (location of the mark) will be the same.
Just as our radial phase analysis provides important information on the 'shape' of the
movement radially, an axial phase analysis provides important information on the
'shape' of the movement axially. In the above animation, we have found there is no
phase shift as we move the transducer around the face of the bearing. But how else
could it be moving ?
The Bearing Is Moving Axially In A "Planar" Motion (Not Twisting On The Shaft)
What is the significance of this ?
The Source Of The High Axial Vibration Is Not Caused By Incorrect Installation Of This Bearing
Axial Phase Analysis Around A Single Bearing
The bearing could be moving as shown here - a 'twisting'

action on the shaft or in the housing. Let's examine this
animation:
• The transducers are mounted in identical positions to the last

animation. "Twisting" Motion
• The peak signal will arrive at each individual transducer location when the
bearing is displaced its maximum to the right at that location.
• That peak arrives at a different moment for each transducer.
• Since the transducers are 60° apart, the phase angle measured at each will be
60° different than the adjacent transducers.
How can this information help the analysis ?
The most likely source of 'planar' axial motion (as in the previous animation) is:
• Misalignment
The most likely sources of 'twisting' axial motion (as shown above) are:
• A bearing cocked on the shaft
• A bent shaft through the bearing
• Housing distortion (i.e. soft foot) causing twisting motion
The phase analysis thereby helps in differentiating between machine problems
that cause similar vibration symptoms (aids in diagnosis of root cause).
Axial Phase Analysis Across Adjacent Bearings
An 'axial phase analysis' is a procedure that is conducted one bearing at a
time. On a smooth running machine, all axial phase readings (on any
bearing at any angular location) will be similar. On a machine with high axial
vibration, the following procedure should be used if possible:
• Each bearing should be checked for planar vs. twisting motion. Any
twisting motions detected should be corrected.
• The bearings should be compared to one another. Any significant (> 60°)
phase shift should raise a flag that something is not right.
• Most commonly, a phase shift >60° will be detected when comparing the
bearings closest to the coupling and will typically indicate misalignment.
• When a phase shift is detected between bearings on the same component
(i.e. motor), housing distortion such as soft foot should be checked.
However, transducer orientation must be accounted for (see the next page).
Understanding Transducer Orientation
The "orientation", or direction, of the transducer is extremely important. The
reason for this is simple.
• The '+' and '-' directions are defined by the transducer. Either '+' is
towards the transducer or away from it.
• The strobe will be triggered by a '+' signal.
• If you change the orientation, you change the definition of '+'.
The animation here shows both transducers

oriented (pointed) in the same direction:
• The '+' direction is defined as 'towards' the
transducer.
• The strobe will trigger on a '+' peak so each
transducer will cause the strobe to flash when
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ?
they reach their maximum displacement to the
left (towards the transducer).
• The strobe flashes when the reference mark is
just past 6:00.
• The transducers have the same orientation and generate the same phase
angles so they are in-phase.
It is common to collect phase readings across a coupling. In that case, you
will almost always have the transducer orientation shown below - the
transducers are oriented in opposite directions.
• The transducer mounted on the left bearing will
cause the strobe to trigger when the bearing is
at maximum displacement to the right (towards
that transducer). At that moment, the reference
mark is approaching the 12:00 position.
• The transducer mounted on the right bearing
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ? will cause the strobe to trigger when the bearing
is at maximum displacement to the left
(towards that transducer). At that moment, the
reference mark is approaching the 6:00 position
(just out of sight).
• Since they have phase angles 180° different, the bearings may appear out of
phase - but are they?
• The bearings are moving in the identical fashion as the previous page and we
established they are 'in-phase'.
• The difference is the transducer orientation. It must be accounted for in the
final readings.
• Since the orientation of the two transducer is 180° different, a 180°
adjustment must be made to one of the measured phase angles. Once that
adjustment is made, the phase angles become equal - the bearings are moving
"in-phase" with one another.
• In the animation at left, the peak signal is
arriving at each transducer simultaneously.
• Regardless of which transducer orientation is
being used, the strobe is being triggered with
the mark approaching 12:00. But are they "in-
phase" ?
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ? • Of course not - not if you make the required
180° adjustment to one of the angles to account
for transducer orientation.
• The bearings are 180° 'out-of-phase'.
• Phase is a common and reliable way to diagnose
misalignment.
• The procedure involves conducting an axial
phase analysis around bearing faces as well as
from bearing to bearing.
• The point at which you find a phase shift of >
30° is typically the source of a problem
Are the machine faces "in-phase" or (possibly not the only problem).
• Note in high axial vibration in the animation
"out-of-phase" with one another ?
shown here. These components are 'angularly
misaligned'.
• Are the faces of the machine "in-phase" or "out-
of-phase" with one another ?
How would the transducers be oriented in this case ? Almost certainly 180°
opposite (one pointing left and one pointing right). You will have to make an
adjustment for transducer orientation.
How Amplitude Units Affect Phase Angles
Once you start a phase analysis, you
should never change the amplitude units
you are using. Although we have been
creating examples using displacement
units, velocity units are the most
versatile and commonly used. Let's
review how phase angles are determined:
• The strobe flash is triggered by the
arrival of the peak amplitude signal from
the transducer.
• The location of the reference mark is
determined by the moment of the strobe
flash.
• The timing of the arrival of the peak
amplitude signal determines the location
of the mark.
The key to why amplitude units affect phase angles is that:
• The moment the peak signal arrives is determined by which amplitude unit
is being used.
Using displacement units, the peak will arrive when the transducer is
displaced the maximum amount in the '+' direction. The mark is at 10:30
(315°).
• Now let's look at velocity units - the most
commonly used. When will the peak
arrive ? Remember what we are
measuring - the speed of the bearing in
one direction.
• Using velocity amplitudes, the peak
occurs when the bearing is moving
towards the transducer at the fastest
speed. At that moment, the mark is at
7:30 (225°). That is 90° different than
what we measured with displacement
units.
• By simply changing amplitude units from
displacement to velocity, we have caused
a 90° phase shift.
• Finally, let's look at acceleration units.

When will the peak arrive in that case ?
• Using acceleration amplitudes, the peak
will arrive when the bearing
housing/structure is pushing (applying
force) the greatest amount in the "+"
direction At that moment, the mark is at
4:30 (135°). That is 90° different from
what we measured with velocity units.
• By changing from velocity to
acceleration, we have induced another
90° phase shift (180° from the phase
angle using displacement units).
Displacement Sinusoid Velocity Sinusoid Acceleration Sinusoid
Comparing these images (from the 'Amplitude' Section) will help you
understand why the peaks arrive at different moments for different
amplitude units.
• Velocity is 1/4 cycle (90°) ahead of displacement and 1/4 cycle behind
acceleration.
• Acceleration is 1/2 cycle (180°) away from displacement.
When is this information important ?
• When doing any work with phase (general analysis, balancing, etc.), don't
change the amplitude unit with which you are working.
How Is Phase Measured With A Photoeye ?
The procedure for collecting phase with a photoeye is somewhat different than with a
strobe light. Let's measure phase at 1x rpm as shown here.
Step #1 - Mount Photoeye & Trigger
• The first step in measuring phase is to properly set up the
photoeye. It must be mounted rigidly next to the shaft so it can
detect a trigger mark rotating on the shaft. The mark is often a
piece of reflective tape. With some modern detectors (like
'Lasertachs'), pattern recognition is used and reflective tape is
often not needed. The trigger gives the analyzer a 1x rpm pulse
(gives it the frequency).
Step #2 - Mount Transducer
• Mount the transducer at the location and direction desired.
Step #3 - Instruct Analyzer to collect a phase measurement.
• A keystroke will tell the box to collect a phase reading.
How does the photoeye calculate the phase angle ?
• The 1x rpm trigger provides the box with the period of the frequency being
measured - the period of 1 cycle at 1x rpm.
• The box takes that period (measured in seconds) and divides it by 360.
• Once all the math is completed, the box is ready. When instructed to collect a phase
angle, it waits for the trigger mark to pass so it can begin a count up to 360.
• After beginning it's count, it awaits the arrival of a peak signal from the transducer.
The moment it has that, it stops the count. That is the phase angle.
• For the sake of accuracy, several angles are checked and an average is what is
eventually displayed as the phase angle.
What Is "Time Synchronous Averaging" ?
It is a procedure that differentiates between synchronous and non-
synchronous frequencies. When applied properly, it is a powerful tool.
• The analyzer and photoeye are set up as outlined on the previous page.
• The analyzer is instructed to collect a spectrum. The specifics on how to
perform this are different for each box and exact instruction will be left to
the various manufacturers.
• The analyzer will collect a spectrum that contains ONLY synchronous
vibration. That is, only vibration frequencies that are exact harmonics of
the trigger rate (usually 1x rpm).
• Any non-synchronous frequencies - no matter how close they are to being
synchronous - are filtered out and disappear from the spectrum. This
allows for comparison with a normally collected spectrum and subsequent
analysis of whether a particular frequency is coming from the rotor or some
other (non-synchronous) source.
For more information on this powerful troubleshooting tool, see the 'Field
Tests' manual.
End Of Phase Section:
End Of Vibration Characteristics
You have now completed the "Vibration Characteristics" section of our
training. If you feel satisfied with your understanding of the subjects, you
should now move on to:
• How vibration is measured and how a database should be set up, or

• Plots: The trend plot, the spectrum plot, the "envelope" plot and time
domain plot.
Acquiring and Displaying Data
• Data Display:
o Trend Plot
o Time Domain Plot
o FFT Spectrum Plot
o Envelope Spectrum Plot
• How Are Amplitudes Determined ?
• Difference Between RMS, Peak and Peak-Peak Values
• Acquiring Data: Transducers
o Acceleration
o Velocity
o Displacement
How Data is Displayed:
The Trend Plot
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
Time (typically days or months)
• A 'Trend' plot is simply a number of amplitude values - snapshots of the

total vibration (vibration at all frequencies) - over a period of time.
• The interval between readings will be the time elapsed between those
readings. That time interval could be anything from months to milliseconds
depending on the specifics of the vibration program and system(s)
involved.
• A trend plot offers limited analysis tools (there is no identification of
specific frequencies, for instance) but can be an important indicator of
developing problems.
Time Domain Plots
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
Time (seconds or milliseconds)
The first process the data collected is put through is to convert what is an analog signal
(the transducer moving with the bearing) to a digital signal - seen here. This is a "time
domain" plot. Typically, the length of a time domain plot will be very short - commonly
in milliseconds. It is common to want to capture 5-7 revolutions of a shaft. To capture
5 revolutions of a shaft running (for instance) 3000 rpm (50Hz, or revolutions per
second), you would need 5/50 = 0.1 seconds = 100msecs. On that plot, you should be
able to see 5 sine waves for 5 revolutions of the shaft plus any wave shape distortion
(is it a perfect sine wave or an unusual shape) plus any higher frequencies that might
be occuring (electrical, bearings, gears).
Time Domain Plots
• A 'Time Domain' plot displays amplitude vs. time.
• However, unlike a trend plot, the amplitude is a continuous representation
of the amplitude value.
• For instance, if the amplitude unit for the above plot were displacement,
the line would represent the actual bearing location as it moves back and
forth.
• Also unlike a trend plot, the values can be negative or positive since, for
instance, the displacement can be on either side of a neutral, or 'at-rest'
position, and velocity or acceleration amplitudes can be in one direction or
the other (defined as the '+' and '-' directions depending on the direction
the transducer is pointing).
The time domain is more difficult to analyze than the next plot we will
discuss - the "Spectrum" - but under certain conditions it can provide
insights and information not available on the spectrum plot.
The "FFT" Spectrum Plot
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
A "Spectrum" is plot of amplitude vs. frequency. The above plot is a

spectrum that was created from a time domain plot using a
mathematical principle called the "Fast Fourier Transform", or "FFT".
This plot is often simply referred to as an "FFT".
This principle states that any periodic signal (what we measure with
vibration) can be broken down into a series of simple sinusoids that,
when combined, will generate the periodic signal we have just analyzed.
In practical terms that means this process can generate the spectrum
we see here from a time domain signal it has analyzed. By plotting
amplitude versus frequency (instead of time), it becomes far easier to
analyze. By relying on complex mathematical processes, however, it
also becomes susceptible to generating what can be misleading
information. The plot displays a certain number of amplitude values
(400, 800, 1600, etc.) over a range of frequencies. The plot seen here
tells the analyst that there is:
• 'A' amplitude at a frequency of approximately 3534 cpm (58.9 Hz)
• 'B' amplitude at approximately 7084 cpm (118.07 Hz)
• 'C' amplitude at approximately 10,633 cpm (177.22 Hz) and so on.
This plot is the most commonly used analysis tool since, by enabling
frequency identification, it allows for preliminary identification of the
source of the vibration.
The "Envelope" Spectrum Plot
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
Frequency (cpm or Hz)
• An 'Enveloping Spectrum' plot is identical to a conventional spectrum in the

way it displays data: amplitude vs. frequency.
• However, there is a significant difference in the way the raw data is
processed.
• Whereas conventional FFT processing extracts simple sinusoids from
complex motion, enveloping spectrum signal processing looks for transient
(instantaneous) impacts - the "striking" action discussed earlier versus the
"pushing" action the FFT works well with.
• These impacts do not usually survive the conventional FFT process and
therefore are kept hidden from the analyst.
• However, knowledge of the frequency of these impacts provides extremely
important information towards proper diagnosis of machinery problems at
an earlier stage than would be possible with conventional FFT analysis.
• This additional analysis tool is particularly useful in diagnosing bearing
faults.
This plot, which is a spectrum in its appearance, is extremely useful in the

identification of rolling element bearing defects and a number of other
impact generating vibration problems.
How Are 'Trend' Amplitudes Determined ?
Practical Definition:
• The 'Overall' Amplitude is the sum of all of the vibration energy occurring between 0
cpm and the data collector's maximum frequency (its "Fmax" - well over
1,000kcpm). In other words, if you were to collect a spectrum over a frequency
range of 0 - collector's Fmax and added all of the amplitude peaks together, that
would be your 'overall' amplitude. Although not technically correct, that is one way
to look at it.
Technical Definition:
• Consider again collecting a spectrum from 0 - the collector's Fmax. Take every
amplitude value, square it, add them together and take the square root of that sum.
Although not exactly perfectly accurate, that is closer to what actually goes into
calculating an 'overall' amplitude. That is known as a "Root Mean Square", or RMS,
value.
• All data is collected as an "RMS" value. That is an ISO convention and applies no
matter what collector you may have.
• The RMS value was settled on in order to guard against a transient spike in the
signal distorting the true value significantly.
But there are several different 'signal detection' units available - RMS, peak and peak
to peak. How exactly are they related and calculated ?
The Difference Between RMS, Peak and Peak to Peak Amplitudes
Again, all data is collected as an "RMS" value ("Root Mean Square"). That is
an ISO convention and applies no matter what manufacturer's collector you
may have.
The "RMS" value is calculated by simply multiplying the peak amplitude
(shown in the graphic below) by 0.707:
RMS = Peak x 0.707
But is that technically correct ?
• Technically, the RMS value of a pure sinusoid

is equal to the area under the half-wave.
• That corresponds to (peak x 0.707) on a pure
sinusoid.
• Pure sinusoids are rarely encountered in the
world of mechanical vibration.
• Due to that, the trend amplitude value is
calculated by simply multiplying the peak
amplitude by 0.707.
But some analysts prefer to display the amplitudes as a 'peak' amplitude
(usually because the vibration severity charts they are using are in peak
amplitude values). So how is that value calculated ?
• To calculate the 'Peak' amplitude, we divide the RMS value by 0.707.

• For those of you paying close attention, you may have noticed that, from
start to finish, the way a peak amplitude is calculated is:
o Measure the peak amplitude.
o Multiply by 0.707 to obtain the RMS value.
o Divide by 0.707 to obtain the Peak value.
In some cases - specifically the use of displacement amplitudes where the

analyst wants the total amount of bearing movement back and forth - the
'Peak to Peak' value is desired by the analyst. In that case, the peak value is
simply multiplied by 2. Velocity and acceleration units are not typically
displayed as peak to peak since the important piece of information is what
the maximum (peak) value is.
So let's summarize:
• The highest (peak) value of collected data is multiplied by 0.707 to obtain
the ISO standard of RMS amplitude. The majority of programs world-wide
use this value.
• For those programs that wish to display the data as a 'peak' value, the
RMS value is then divided by 0.707 to obtain the peak amplitude.
• For those situations where peak to peak amplitudes are desired, the peak
amplitude is simply multiplied by 2.
Summary: It doesn't matter which value you use - RMS or Peak - so long as
you are CONSISTENT (another very important convention) !! Amplitude is,
after all, simply a number from which we make certain generalizations
about the machine condition. There is no exact, precise number above
which disaster awaits and below which you are safe.
Be aware of the conversion if comparing values between programs that use
RMS and Peak values. This applies to spectrum plots as well.
Now let's look at the vibration sensors - transducers.
Transducers
A vibration transducer is the instrument that measures or senses the
vibration and is commonly referred to as a pickup or sensor. The basic
understanding and proper selection of an appropriate transducer is
important. This text will not deal in extensive detail with all the different
types and technical characteristics of transducers but will attempt only to
provide a basic understanding of the important aspects. There are basically
three types of transducers commonly used. They are:
• Accelerometer
• Velocity Transducer
• Displacement Transducer
Transducers:
Accelerometers
Accelerometers are by far the most common and versatile types of
transducers in use. The seismic, or piezoelectric, accelerometer produces a
output charge when held against a vibrating surface due to the
characteristics of the piezoelectric disks that are inside the transducer. These
transducers contain no moving parts and as such are quite rugged. The
charge that is generated through the compression and expansion of the
piezoelectric disks is proportional to the amount of vibration acceleration
(force).
• Generated voltage is very small - most models have built
in hi-gain electronic amplifiers.
• Output charge is proportional acceleration force
accelerometer is exposed to.
• Accelerometers are the only transducer capable of reliably
measuring high frequency vibration that is related to
problems such as bearing defects and gear problems.
• Accelerometers have fair to poor accuracy at low
frequencies where acceleration amplitudes can become
quite small even in the presence of high displacement
amplitudes.
One Design of a
• Some are somewhat susceptible to radio frequency Piezoelectric
interference Accelerometer
Transducers:
Accelerometers
• Some can have problems with thermal growth (putting the transducer on a
very hot bearing) which can cause false amplitude values at low
frequencies unless they are given time to thermally stabilize.
• Transducer should have sensitivity of 100 mv/G or higher. The more mv/G
the accel generates, the more accurate it will be in the low frequency (<
120 cpm) roll-off ranges.
Recent years have seen the development of affordable accelerometers that
are reasonably accurate to frequencies even well below 120 cpm. Low
frequency will remain, however, a weakness of accelerometers due to the
nature of acceleration amplitudes at low frequencies. Accelerometers are
also useful because they are much more compact and lightweight than
velocity transducers and therefore can be used in more environments and
applications. They are also not as susceptible to magnetic fields generated
by electric motors or other magnetic sources as velocity transducers.
A final advantage of using an accelerometer is the ability to integrate the
results in order to obtain velocity readings and double integrate the results
in order to obtain displacement readings. This ability means that a single
transducer can be used to register and quantify all three of the primary
amplitude units of acceleration, velocity and displacement over a wide range
of common frequencies.
Transducers:
Velocity
There are two primary types of velocity transducers, the moving coil type
and the piezoelectric type.
Moving Coil Type -
• Internally is made up of a coil supported by

springs and a permanently fixed magnet.
• Coil movement relative to the magnet
generates a voltage proportional to the velocity
of that movement.
• Generally require no output signal amplifiers.
Moving Coil Velocity Transducer
• They are larger than other types of transducers.

• They are not reliable for low frequency measurements without the use of a
correction factor because the coil tends to follow the magnet at low
frequencies.
• Balancing at lower frequencies ok since the relative amplitudes recorded
will be consistent.
• Moving coil type velocity transducers are also affected by magnetic fields
that may be present around electric motors or other magnetic sources and
may require magnetic shielding in order to be used in such an
environment.
Transducers:
Velocity
Piezoelectric Velocity Transducer -
• Similar to the piezoelectric accelerometer in design with the obvious

difference of the output charge being proportional to the velocity of the
transducer.
• The charge is created by the piezoelectric disks responding to the stress of
whatever applied forces there may be.
• Generally require a built-in amplifier due to the extremely small signal
generated.
• Piezoelectric velocity transducers are generally not affected by magnetic
fields and can also measure accurately down to 60 cpm or less.
• There are thermal sensitivities and ambient temperature limitations
involved.
Transducers:
Displacement
Generally known as proximity probes, these
transducers are limited in application but where
applicable they are extremely useful and
important. They are generally used where a
smooth running rotor is very critical. For
instance, turbines in power plants will have
permanently mounted proximity probes Proximity Probe
monitoring turbine movement and possibly
phase. High speed compressor rotors are
another example of a machine that will almost
always be monitored with proximity probes.
• Does not actually touch the shaft or bearing - it is mounted an exact
distance from a clean, smooth area of the shaft and fixed in place.
• Externally applied high-frequency carrier signal emits a magnetic field
from a coil in the tip of the probe towards the shaft.
• The shaft absorbs some of the magnetic energy present.
• The closer the shaft to the magnetic field source, the more it absorbs. The
more magnetic energy it absorbs, the more it uses up the carrier signal
and reduces the carrier signal strength.
• The further away the shaft is from the probe, the less it absorbs. The less
magnetic energy it absorbs, the less it uses up the carrier signal and the
higher the carrier signal strength remains
Transducers:
Displacement
• The probe produces 2 signals:
o AC signal proportional to the vibration (shaft movement).
o DC signal proportional to the size of the gap.
Generally, the applications are:
• Relatively lightweight rotors in massive housings and rigid (generally

“sleeve” or “babbit”) bearings.
• High speed rotors on machines such as turbines, centrifugal compressors
and pumps (where shaft speeds can exceed 50,000 rpm).
• Very slow speed machines on which it is difficult to obtain reliable data
with velocity transducers or accelerometers.
Machines such as these can fail catastrophically in an extremely short period

of time (hours, minutes or even seconds) from the initial onset of the
problem and on-line monitoring with permanently mounted proximity probes
is essential to both machine and human safety.
So you've got a collector, transducers and you understand the basics. How
do you set up a database ?
Database Setup
• Database Setup: Introduction
• What Purpose Of A Monitoring Program
• Setting Up Point Parameters
• How Much Data Is "Enough" ?
• Trading Time vs. Accuracy
• An Example Of An Effective, Efficient Database Setup
• Summary
Database Setup
Introduction
A crucial step for any monitoring program is, unfortunately, right at the
beginning - database setup. This is unfortunate because it is a crucial task
that is performed when the people doing it are most likely inexperienced and
of limited education in the field. Once created, it is very difficult to develop
new ideas or drastically change things without creating a colossal mess.
The parameters selected and programmed into the PC-based database will be
fed into the data collector and will determine the characteristics and
usefulness of the data you collect. Most data collectors also have the
capability of allowing the user to program in many of the most important
parameters on the spot while performing an in-depth analysis. That,
however, is a separate function from what has been loaded in from the
database and can be extremely cumbersome and time consuming compared
to having the information pre-programmed into the data collector and merely
having to walk the route stopping at collection points and pressing store on
the collector.
A monitoring program tracks the condition of your equipment through the

measurement of vibration amplitudes on a regular interval. Deviation from
the norm then triggers further investigation to determine the source and
correct the actual cause of the excessive vibration.
Database Setup :
Purpose of a Monitoring Program
What is the purpose of a vibration monitoring program ? Well, the operative
word is “monitoring”. The purpose is to monitor the vibration levels. This
means collecting data that will alert you to any developing problems while
not over-burdening you with collecting overly detailed or excessive amounts
of data. A monitoring program is not intended nor is able to do is allow for
specific diagnose of every problem that arises while sitting behind your
computer.
To be sure, a well designed vibration monitoring program will nearly always

give you a specific direction in which to search for a problem and it will help
you prioritize work by gauging the severity and source of most of the
problems you will encounter. However, further analysis, or at the very least
confirmation checks, are always a wise course of action to take before
proceeding with any corrective actions.
Database Setup :
Selecting Point Parameters
As an example let us look at a simple AC motor. The details surrounding
each of the frequencies we have to monitor are found in the "Troubleshooting
Charts" (accessed from the main menu). The question we will address is -
what are the different potential problems we need to be looking for:
Explanation Frequency(s) to monitor

Running speed harmonics 1x, 2x, 3x rpm
Torque Pulse Frequency (variation in motor air gap) 2x AC Line Frequency
Electrically related frequencies equal to the number of 1x, 2x, 3x Rotor Bar Pass Frequency
rotor bars or winding (RBPF)
slots x rpm. These can reveal certain electrical problems or Winding Slot Pass Frequency (WSPF)
and/or conditions.
Frequency range in which symptoms of rolling element 30kcpm - 120kcpm
bearing defects usually show up initially.
So the questions are - what are the Fmax's, how many lines of resolution
should be used, what amplitude units should we use, what is the best way to
analyze the data and basically, how can we make our database work for us
as efficiently as possible ? How can the need for occasional high resolution
readings be squared with the need to monitor relatively high frequencies ?
Accuracy vs. speed of data collection.
Database Setup :
The solution, of course, is that several different measurements must be
taken at each position with each one addressing one or a few specific
problem areas (and hence a specific frequency range).
Mechanically Caused Vibrations
• A complete protection set-up would collect a reading horizontally and
verticallyon each bearing plus one axial reading on position 2 with an
Fmax of 120000 cpm in order to monitor potential bearing defects
developing and the common problems occurring at 1x, 2x and 3x rpm.
That's five readings.
Electrically Caused Vibrations

• In addition to those two readings, you may wish to take a high resolution
reading on one motor bearing (typically a 12000 cpm Fmax with up to
1600 lines of resolution). This reading would separate the electrical and
mechanical vibrations at the low frequency end.
Database Setup :
• Finally, you may want to collect a reading with an Fmax of 720000 cpm to
look for the high frequency electrical problems (loose windings, loose or
cracked rotor bars). The reason the word may is used is because electrical
problems are relatively uncommon and extra electrical readings can be
collected separately if a problem is suspected. A full set of baseline
readings should be collected in any event to initially check for any such
problems. The only one of these readings that should not be collected with
velocity amplitude units is the 720000 cpm Fmax reading which should
utilize acceleration units.
• That's two more readings.
Bearing Protection:
• An enveloping spectrum should also be taken on each bearing to check for
any frequencies at which impacts are occurring. That's two more readings.
What you are left with is this:
Database Setup :
However, let's get back to the word monitoring - as in a monitoring
program. You could, depending on the proactivity of the program personnel,
eliminate a few of the readings and rely on the others to tip you off that
something is wrong. You could then go into full-blown anaysis mode and
collect lots of data. Using that logic, the readings could be divided into
"necessary" and "optional" readings as follows:
Necessary
Position Direction Units # of Lines Max Freq Readings
Brg 1 Horiz Velocity 400 120 kcpm 1
Brg 1 Horiz Enveloping 400 60 kcpm 2
Brg 2 Horiz Enveloping 400 60 kcpm 4
Brg 2 Axial Velocity 400 60 kcpm 5

Database Setup :
The necessary readings shown here monitor for early stage bearing defects
as well as providing general information on machine health. In-depth
analysis may be difficult, depending on the specific problem, and a problem
developing may require more and better data be collected.
Necessary
Position Direction Units # of Lines Max Freq Readings
Brg 1 Horiz Acceleration 1600 720 kcpm 6
Brg 1 vertical Velocity 400 120 kcpm 7
Brg 2 vertical Velocity 400 120 kcpm 9
The optional readings shown here monitor in additional planes (vertical) and
for more specific problems with high frequency (720kcpm, 1600 lines) and
high resolution (12kcpm, 1600 lines) spectra.
Database Setup :
Further Example of Selecting Point Parameters
Let's look at a component other than the motor - a screw compressor (note
that we have already discussed what is needed to adequately monitor the
motor). You would need:
• To collect a reading with an Fmax of 120000
cpm on each of the four bearings in order to
monitor potential bearing defects developing
and the common problems occurring at 1x, 2x
and 3x rpm and aerodynamic (# lobes x rpm)
pressure-pulse related frequencies.
• An enveloping spectrum to help in analyzing any
impact generating frequencies. Screw Compressor:
48 x RPM = Gear Mesh
• By calculating the gear mesh frequency at 48 Frequency
teeth x rpm, you would want to collect a reading 48/36 Gear Ratio = 1.33
Speed Increase
with an Fmax of 3x gear mesh frequency 4 x 1.33 = Lobe Pass Freq.
(3x48=144), or approximately 150x rpm to look (Aerodynamic)
for the high frequency, gear-related problems.

# of Necessary
Position Direction Units Lines Max Freq Readings
All compressor
Horizontal Velocity 800 120 kcpm 1
bearings
All compressor
Horizontal Enveloping 800 60 kcpm 2
bearings
Database Setup :
Further Example of Selecting Point Parameters
Note that there are no low Fmax readings being taken (lowest Fmax is
60kcpm). The simple reason for this is that none are necessary. There are
no frequencies so close as to be inseparable on a normal spectrum. The
expected dominant frequencies on the spectrum will be related to the
aerodynamic pulse frequency and the motor rpm. The use of these three
readings on each bearing (12 readings on the compressor side alone) will
protect against occurrence of a unforeseen problem -assuming, of course,
proper interpretation of the data as well as proper operation and general
maintenance of the machine.
Note that implementing a global default change from 400 to 800 lines is a
good technical change with practical advantages and, with the speed of
processors and amount of memory available, there are minimal downsides.
Database Setup :
How Much Data is Enough ?
So you see that a simple AC motor may require as many as nine separate
spectra in order to catch all the potential problems that may develop on it.
The driven component as many or more. How do you collect all of this data ?
More importantly, how do you analyze all the data you've collected in an
efficient yet productive way ? That is the main problem. Of course, some
problems are much more likely to develop than others and a reduction in the
number of readings may be unavoidable in order to decrease data collection
and analysis time.
As with many other maintenance or management decisions, trade-offs
between time and accuracy of information must be made.
• Good news: The more readings you have, the more information you will
have, the more protection you will have, etc.
• Bad news: The more readings you take, the longer your data collections
will take, the longer your analyses will take and the more paperwork you
will have.
Once again, let’s return to the basic rules governing the purpose of a
monitoring program. Although it is possible, very few types of problems will
show up in only the vertical direction without also affecting the horizontal
readings. So we could eliminate some of the vertical readings with a slight
decrease in the protection level. Note that only one reading is taken axially.
Typically, bearing 2 is where the axial reading is taken due to easier access
but that is not always the case.
So how much data should your program collect ?
The answer is actually fairly simple:
• It depends on how proactive your maintenance department is relative to a
PdM program.
• In other words, the faster and more efficiently you investigate and solve
problems, the less data you can get by collecting.
I've personally seen tremendously successful programs that collect a bare

minimum of data periodically - trend (overall) values and spectrums on
overall alarm only. The secret to their success is simple - the moment
something goes into a (well set up) statistical alarm, the collector is
triggered to collect a spectrum. When the data is uploaded, they analyze the
spectrum (no spectrums are collected that are not in alarm) and
immediately send someone out to investigate and correct as necessary.
Average plant-wide vibration around 0.16 in/sec (3.9 mm/s) - not bad for a
plant that runs 25+ routes a week and has two full-time analysts.
Database Setup :
Trading Time Versus Accuracy
There is one good argument against bothering to collect the two special
electrical readings:
• Electrical problems are often apparent through means other than a
velocity spectrum. Many problems, including high 2x line frequency and
broken/cracked rotor bar problems, will almost always cause an audible,
pulsing hum in the motor that anyone can notice without vibration
equipment.
Can we therefore collect these two readings only when a problem is
suspected and not every data collection ?
• For a purely monitoring purpose, we would then be down to only five
readings, reducing data collection time by more than 50% since we would
be eliminating the most time consuming of these readings.
• To take this reduction to an even further extreme, we could collect only
overall values for each of these points and trend amplitude changes
(increases) only, collecting spectra only when the trends indicate it is
necessary.
What data should be collected on this motor ?
• 10 spectra and overalls, or . . .

• 5 overalls ONLY ?
Database Setup :
Trading Time Versus Accuracy
These are decisions that must be made by the people in charge of executing
the program. They should be based on a number of criteria including
machine criticality, manpower availability, instrumentation used (speed and
capability) and available software. Each reduction in the amount of readings
taken increases the potential for an unforeseen failure. Any use of vibration
analysis, however, is an improvement over reactive maintenance, which
merely reacts to breakdowns or imminent problems.
How does Vibe-Assist address this dilemma ?

Database Setup :
An Example Of An Effective Database Setup
The exact nature of your database setup and the specifics must be addressed
according to the vendor you purchased your software from. Most programs fail
because usable, worthwhile data can not be extracted from the database. Why
does this happen ? The software usually has certain useful features such as
reporting capabilities that can be accessed - if the database is created in such a
way as to not only take advantage but to make the best use of those features.
By way of a single example - and their are numerous ways to set up a database
- the service company Vibe-Assist looked at two ingredients that went into the
collection and analysis of data - what information they wanted vs. what the
reporting capability of the software was (Entek's Odyssey™) - and came up with
database setup templates that are used for creating an effective database
structure that uses software features of Odyssey to provide information we want.
By generating a database structure that takes maximum advantage of a powerful
software reporting feature, Vibe-Assist reduced their analysis time by an
incredible 80% or so. This new database structure did not generate this huge
improvement by reducing machinery protection or analysis accuracy. On the
contrary, the new setup improved the reliability of the analysis and improved the
level of protection possessed by the machines they monitor. In order to illustrate
the value of an effective database setup, Vibe-Assist has agreed to share a few
of their component setups along with an explanation of the logic behind the
database structure. Shown below are examples of a direct drive, 4-bearing
machine and a belt-drive, 4-bearing machine. The links below under the "Type"
of reading will take you to explanation pages for each of the readings.
Database Setup :
Direct Drive
Bearing 1
Direction Units # of Lines Max Freq Type Readings

Horizontal Velocity 800 30kcpm Trend & Spectrum 1
120kcpm
Horizontal Acceleration 800 - or - Trend & Spectrum 2
60kcpm*
20x rpm
Horizontal Envelope 800 Spectrum Only 3
up to 60kcpm
Acceleration 5-9 revolutions or
Horizontal 2048 bytes Time Domain 4
or Velocity relevant period
Horizontal Acceleration 800 240x rpm Trend & Spectrum 5
* - For the acceleration spectrum, use 120kcpm for machine speeds over
1200 rpm and 60kcpm below that.
Database Setup :
Direct Drive
Bearing 2

120kcpm
60kcpm*
20x rpm
up to 60kcpm
Database Setup :
Direct Drive
Bearing 3&4

120kcpm
60kcpm*
20x rpm
up to 60kcpm
Database Setup :
Belt Drive
Bearing #1

120kcpm
60kcpm*
20x rpm
up to 60kcpm
Horizontal Acceleration 800 240x rpm Trend & Spectrum 5
Database Setup :
Belt Drive
Bearing #2

120kcpm
60kcpm*
20x rpm
up to 60kcpm
Database Setup :
Direct Drive
Bearing #3&4

Horiz Velocity 800 6kcpm Trend & Spectrum 1
120kcpm
Horiz Acceleration 800 - or - Trend & Spectrum 2
60kcpm*
20x rpm
Horiz Envelope 800 Spectrum Only 3
up to 60kcpm
Horiz 2048 bytes Time Domain 4
Explanation of Readings
There are numerous other component setups in the templates - these are for
generic, rolling element bearing machines running at normal speed (1000 -
3600 rpm). But this seems like an extreme amount of data - how does this
help with analysis ? Well, first, each reading has a specific job to do:
• Reading 1: Velocity Trend - Tool that is sensitive to fluctuation (increase)

in low - mid frequency ranges where mechanical problems develop (1x -
5x rpm) and, to a lesser degree, higher frequency problems such as rolling
element bearings.
• Reading 1: Velocity Spectrum - Analysis tool for low - mid frequency
problems. Higher resolution readings collected on belt drives and inboard
motor bearings.
o Note: By properly setting some simple statistical alarms on the trend
plot, this spectrum may be turned off because the analyst will be
alerted by the overall alarm to any situation where a spectrum is
required and eliminate many of these most time consuming readings.
• Reading 2: Acceleration Trend - Tool that is not affected by influences at 1x
- 5x rpm but is increasingly sensitive to problems developing above 30kcpm
such as gears, bearings and high frequency electrical. Another good
candidate for statistical alarms.
• Reading 2: Acceleration Spectrum - Analysis tool for high frequency problem
detection and analysis. Used in conjunction with the next reading...
Explanation of Readings
• Reading 3: Envelope Spectrum - e.g. gSE, ESP, Peakvue, HFB and more.
This plot gives information on transient impacts occurring that may be
related to a bearing defect or several other sources.
• Reading 4: Time Domain - Can be de-activated if the analyst prefers but is
an important tool to use at times. Can be set to whatever time sample the
analyst chooses.
• Reading 5: Acceleration Spectrum - On motors only, looks for 2x and 3x
rotor bar pass frequency and winding slot pass frequency - very high
frequencies.
So what are we left with in the best of environments ? By turning off the
time consuming velocity spectrum and rely on trends only to monitor the
low-frequency end of the spectrum, we are left with:
• Velocity overall
• Acceleration overall
• Acceleration spectrum
• An enveloping spectrum
That is a total of about 5 seconds of data collection. If the velocity trends
into alarm, we turn on the velocity spectrum for analysis. If an acceleration
overall trends into alarm, we check the enveloping spectrum for impact
frequencies and try to match up harmonics on the acceleration spectrum.
This database structure protects against all possible trendable problems (as
opposed to "event-based" problems that can lead to short-duration failures).
Sample Report
The key, however, is in the simple reports that can be run. An amplitude
threshold is set for the report (perhaps 0.2 in/sec or 5 mm/sec). A line is
triggered for the report for every single peak that exceeds the pre-set
amplitude threshold. The line on the report, shown below, includes all the
location information, the Fmax, peak amplitude and frequency of the peak as
well as the rpm and date. This makes initial review of the data simple and
brief. This report addresses the low-mid frequency ranges that require
velocity units for effective monitoring (> 30kcpm). This is the frequency
range in which mechanical problems will show up: 1x - 10x rpm or so. This
report does not address bearings, gears, certain electrical vibrations or any
other high frequency vibration sources.
Sample Report
To address the high frequencies, an identical report is created to handle the
acceleration spectral data. The amplitude trigger for acceleration units will
typically be about 1G - a very safe, fairly low amplitude threshold. Any line
on the acceleration report is investigated by first looking for any impact
frequencies on the associated envelope spectrum and then by making an
assessment of the vibration source. Further investigation may be necessary
but the report(s) give easily accessed, easily analyzed information that
prompts immediate investigation in the problem areas. Much of the data
does not get looked at but that is simply because the vibration levels too low
to be concerned with.
Database Setup :
Summary
The creation of a database, with all the associated decisions that must be
made, is a job that requires a very good technical understanding of vibration
analysis, machinery operational characteristics and good doses of common
sense. Always question what you are doing, especially whether or not the
desired goals are being achieved and, if not, what other methods might be
used to achieve those goals.
The database setup shown on the previous page that Vibe-Assist is
successful with was not presented as an example of the only way a database
can be setup. It was included only as an example of a setup that is known to
provide high levels of protection while being simple to manage and easy to
analyze - three very important aspects. There are certainly other database
structures that are successful. No matter the database setup, the individuals
involved are of crucial importance; the machines, the maintenance
environment and numerous other factors also affect the success. However,
the importance of the task of setting up a database cannot be overstated.
Although doing it properly does not guarantee success, doing it improperly
guarantees failure. There are many variables to consider and options to
choose from.
Database Setup :
Summary
The particular database setup we've just gone through utilizes a strength of
the Odyssey™ software - the ability to generate a report with the specific
information we wanted. Your software may or may not have that ability. You
may need or want to focus on some other strength of your software (since it
is the key determining factor in what database setup will work for you). The
database is comprehensive yet manageable and scaleable to the user's
needs. If you have Odyssey™ software and are struggling with your
database setup, feel free to copy the database setup laid out above and
customize the report as you saw on the previous page. You can also, for a
small fee, obtain the templates (including the different components, a
written manual the reports, etc.) directly from Vibe-Assist.
Plots :
Trends
• What Is A 'Trend' Plot ?

• How Is A Trend Amplitude Determined
• RMS, Peak, Peak-Peak Values
• Analyzing A Trend
What Is A "Trend" Plot ?
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
• A 'Trend' plot is simply a number of amplitude values - snapshots of the

total vibration (vibration at all frequencies) - over a period of time.
• The interval between readings will be the time elapsed between those
readings. That time interval could be anything from months to milliseconds
depending on the specifics of the vibration program and system(s)
involved.
• A trend plot offers limited analysis tools (there is no identification of
specific frequencies, for instance) but can be an important indicator of
developing problems.
How Are 'Trend' Amplitudes Determined ?
Practical Definition:
• The 'Overall' Amplitude is the sum of all of the vibration energy occurring between 0
cpm and the data collector's maximum frequency (its "Fmax" - well over
1,000kcpm). In other words, if you were to collect a spectrum over a frequency
range of 0 - collector's Fmax and added all of the amplitude peaks together, that
would be your 'overall' amplitude. Although not technically correct, that is one way
to look at it.
Technical Definition:
• Consider again collecting a spectrum from 0 - the collector's Fmax. Take every
amplitude value, square it, add them together and take the square root of that sum.
Although not exactly perfectly accurate, that is closer to what actually goes into
calculating an 'overall' amplitude. That is known as a "Root Mean Square", or RMS,
value.
• All data is collected as an "RMS" value. That is an ISO convention and applies no
matter what collector you may have.
• The RMS value was settled on in order to guard against a transient spike in the
signal distorting the true value significantly.
But there are several different 'signal detection' units available - RMS, peak and peak
to peak. How exactly are they related and calculated ?
Again, all data is collected as an "RMS" value ("Root Mean Square"). That is
an ISO convention and applies no matter what manufacturer's collector you
may have.
The "RMS" value is calculated by simply multiplying the peak amplitude
(shown in the graphic below) by 0.707:
RMS = Peak x 0.707
But is that technically correct ?
• Technically, the RMS value of a pure sinusoid

is equal to the area under the half-wave.
• That corresponds to (peak x 0.707) on a pure
sinusoid.
• Pure sinusoids are rarely encountered in the
world of mechanical vibration.
• Due to that, the trend amplitude value is
calculated by simply multiplying the peak
amplitude by 0.707.
But some analysts prefer to display the amplitudes as a 'peak' amplitude
(usually because the vibration severity charts they are using are in peak
amplitude values). So how is that value calculated ?
• To calculate the 'Peak' amplitude, we divide the RMS value by 0.707.

• For those of you paying close attention, you may have noticed that, from
start to finish, the way a peak amplitude is calculated is:
o Measure the peak amplitude.
o Multiply by 0.707 to obtain the RMS value.
o Divide by 0.707 to obtain the Peak value.
In some cases - specifically the use of displacement amplitudes where the

analyst wants the total amount of bearing movement back and forth - the
'Peak to Peak' value is desired by the analyst. In that case, the peak value is
simply multiplied by 2. Velocity and acceleration units are not typically
displayed as peak to peak since the important piece of information is what
the maximum (peak) value is.
Analyzing A Trend
Analyzing a trend is not typically a difficult thing to do . . . providing you know
what it is you are trending.
• Are you trending high frequency vibration ?
• Not if you only use displacement.
• Are you trending the typical, general equipment speed ranges of 1000 - 3600
rpm and associated mechanical problems.
• Not with displacement or acceleration - only with velocity.
• Are you trending very low frequency vibration - below 100 rpm, for instance ?
• Only with displacement and, if the frequency is low enough, only by changing
type of transducer.
With vibration, a trend headed in the wrong direction almost certainly means it is
increasing. With a properly set up program, properly collected data and proactive
personnel, a program can be successful with collecting little more than trend
values. For whatever reason, however, that is rarely the case.
In any event, trending can be useful but it is not usually enough to make specific
judgements. A determination of the exact frequencies involved is usually required
and should be attempted in any event to avoid a possibly embarassing and
expensive mistake. A determination of frequencies can be made two separate
ways - viewing the data as a raw time domain plot or putting it through an FFT
process to generate a spectrum. An overview of the process of analyzing a
spectrum will now be presented followed by an in-depth look at how, in a
practtical sense, the FFT process works. Understanding that will help you view
the spectrum with an appropriate amount of respect and skepticism.
Time Domain Plots
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
The first process the data collected is put through is to convert what is an analog signal
(the transducer moving with the bearing) to a digital signal - seen here. This is a "time
domain" plot. Typically, the length of a time domain plot will be very short - commonly
in milliseconds. It is common to want to capture 5-7 revolutions of a shaft. To capture
5 revolutions of a shaft running (for instance) 3000 rpm (50Hz, or revolutions per
second), you would need 5/50 = 0.1 seconds = 100msecs. On that plot, you should be
able to see 5 sine waves for 5 revolutions of the shaft plus any wave shape distortion
(is it a perfect sine wave or an unusual shape) plus any higher frequencies that might
be occuring (electrical, bearings, gears).
Time Domain Plots
• A 'Time Domain' plot displays amplitude vs. time.
• However, unlike a trend plot, the amplitude is a continuous representation
of the amplitude value.
• For instance, if the amplitude unit for the above plot were displacement,
the line would represent the actual bearing location as it moves back and
forth.
• Also unlike a trend plot, the values can be negative or positive since, for
instance, the displacement can be on either side of a neutral, or 'at-rest'
position, and velocity or acceleration amplitudes can be in one direction or
the other (defined as the '+' and '-' directions depending on the direction
the transducer is pointing).
The time domain is more difficult to analyze than the next plot we will
discuss - the "Spectrum" - but under certain conditions it can provide
insights and information not available on the spectrum plot.
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
A "Spectrum" is plot of amplitude vs. frequency. The above plot is a

spectrum that was created from a time domain plot using a
mathematical principle called the "Fast Fourier Transform", or "FFT".
This plot is often simply referred to as an "FFT".
This principle states that any periodic signal (what we measure with
vibration) can be broken down into a series of simple sinusoids that,
when combined, will generate the periodic signal we have just analyzed.
In practical terms that means this process can generate the spectrum
we see here from a time domain signal it has analyzed. By plotting
amplitude versus frequency (instead of time), it becomes far easier to
analyze. By relying on complex mathematical processes, however, it
also becomes susceptible to generating what can be misleading
information. The plot displays a certain number of amplitude values
(400, 800, 1600, etc.) over a range of frequencies. The plot seen here
tells the analyst that there is:
• 'A' amplitude at a frequency of approximately 3534 cpm (58.9 Hz)
• 'B' amplitude at approximately 7084 cpm (118.07 Hz)
• 'C' amplitude at approximately 10,633 cpm (177.22 Hz) and so on.
This plot is the most commonly used analysis tool since, by enabling
frequency identification, it allows for preliminary identification of the
source of the vibration.
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
• An 'Enveloping Spectrum' plot is identical to a conventional spectrum in the

way it displays data: amplitude vs. frequency.
• However, there is a significant difference in the way the raw data is
processed.
• Whereas conventional FFT processing extracts simple sinusoids from
complex motion, enveloping spectrum signal processing looks for transient
(instantaneous) impacts - the "striking" action discussed earlier versus the
"pushing" action the FFT works well with.
• These impacts do not usually survive the conventional FFT process and
therefore are kept hidden from the analyst.
• However, knowledge of the frequency of these impacts provides extremely
important information towards proper diagnosis of machinery problems at
an earlier stage than would be possible with conventional FFT analysis.
• This additional analysis tool is particularly useful in diagnosing bearing
faults.
This plot, which is a spectrum in its appearance, is extremely useful in the

identification of rolling element bearing defects and a number of other
impact generating vibration problems.
So let's summarize:
• The highest (peak) value of collected data is multiplied by 0.707 to obtain
the ISO standard of RMS amplitude. The majority of programs world-wide
use this value.
• For those programs that wish to display the data as a 'peak' value, the
RMS value is then divided by 0.707 to obtain the peak amplitude.
• For those situations where peak to peak amplitudes are desired, the peak
amplitude is simply multiplied by 2.
Summary: It doesn't matter which value you use - RMS or Peak - so long as
you are CONSISTENT (another very important convention) !! Amplitude is,
after all, simply a number from which we make certain generalizations
about the machine condition. There is no exact, precise number above
which disaster awaits and below which you are safe.
Be aware of the conversion if comparing values between programs that use
RMS and Peak values. This applies to spectrum plots as well.
Now let's look at the vibration sensors - transducers.
Transducers
A vibration transducer is the instrument that measures or senses the
vibration and is commonly referred to as a pickup or sensor. The basic
understanding and proper selection of an appropriate transducer is
important. This text will not deal in extensive detail with all the different
types and technical characteristics of transducers but will attempt only to
provide a basic understanding of the important aspects. There are basically
three types of transducers commonly used. They are:
• Accelerometer
• Velocity Transducer
• Displacement Transducer
Transducers:
Accelerometers
Accelerometers are by far the most common and versatile types of
transducers in use. The seismic, or piezoelectric, accelerometer produces a
output charge when held against a vibrating surface due to the
characteristics of the piezoelectric disks that are inside the transducer. These
transducers contain no moving parts and as such are quite rugged. The
charge that is generated through the compression and expansion of the
piezoelectric disks is proportional to the amount of vibration acceleration
(force).
• Generated voltage is very small - most models have built
in hi-gain electronic amplifiers.
• Output charge is proportional acceleration force
accelerometer is exposed to.
• Accelerometers are the only transducer capable of reliably
measuring high frequency vibration that is related to
problems such as bearing defects and gear problems.
• Accelerometers have fair to poor accuracy at low
frequencies where acceleration amplitudes can become
quite small even in the presence of high displacement
amplitudes.
One Design of a
• Some are somewhat susceptible to radio frequency Piezoelectric
interference Accelerometer
Transducers:
Accelerometers
• Some can have problems with thermal growth (putting the transducer on a
very hot bearing) which can cause false amplitude values at low
frequencies unless they are given time to thermally stabilize.
• Transducer should have sensitivity of 100 mv/G or higher. The more mv/G
the accel generates, the more accurate it will be in the low frequency (<
120 cpm) roll-off ranges.
Recent years have seen the development of affordable accelerometers that
are reasonably accurate to frequencies even well below 120 cpm. Low
frequency will remain, however, a weakness of accelerometers due to the
nature of acceleration amplitudes at low frequencies. Accelerometers are
also useful because they are much more compact and lightweight than
velocity transducers and therefore can be used in more environments and
applications. They are also not as susceptible to magnetic fields generated
by electric motors or other magnetic sources as velocity transducers.
A final advantage of using an accelerometer is the ability to integrate the
results in order to obtain velocity readings and double integrate the results
in order to obtain displacement readings. This ability means that a single
transducer can be used to register and quantify all three of the primary
amplitude units of acceleration, velocity and displacement over a wide range
of common frequencies.
Transducers:
Velocity
There are two primary types of velocity transducers, the moving coil type
and the piezoelectric type.
Moving Coil Type -
• Internally is made up of a coil supported by

springs and a permanently fixed magnet.
• Coil movement relative to the magnet
generates a voltage proportional to the velocity
of that movement.
• Generally require no output signal amplifiers.
Moving Coil Velocity Transducer
• They are larger than other types of transducers.

• They are not reliable for low frequency measurements without the use of a
correction factor because the coil tends to follow the magnet at low
frequencies.
• Balancing at lower frequencies ok since the relative amplitudes recorded
will be consistent.
• Moving coil type velocity transducers are also affected by magnetic fields
that may be present around electric motors or other magnetic sources and
may require magnetic shielding in order to be used in such an
environment.
Transducers:
Velocity
Piezoelectric Velocity Transducer -
• Similar to the piezoelectric accelerometer in design with the obvious

difference of the output charge being proportional to the velocity of the
transducer.
• The charge is created by the piezoelectric disks responding to the stress of
whatever applied forces there may be.
• Generally require a built-in amplifier due to the extremely small signal
generated.
• Piezoelectric velocity transducers are generally not affected by magnetic
fields and can also measure accurately down to 60 cpm or less.
• There are thermal sensitivities and ambient temperature limitations
involved.
Transducers:
Displacement
Generally known as proximity probes, these
transducers are limited in application but where
applicable they are extremely useful and
important. They are generally used where a
smooth running rotor is very critical. For
instance, turbines in power plants will have
permanently mounted proximity probes Proximity Probe
monitoring turbine movement and possibly
phase. High speed compressor rotors are
another example of a machine that will almost
always be monitored with proximity probes.
• Does not actually touch the shaft or bearing - it is mounted an exact
distance from a clean, smooth area of the shaft and fixed in place.
• Externally applied high-frequency carrier signal emits a magnetic field
from a coil in the tip of the probe towards the shaft.
• The shaft absorbs some of the magnetic energy present.
• The closer the shaft to the magnetic field source, the more it absorbs. The
more magnetic energy it absorbs, the more it uses up the carrier signal
and reduces the carrier signal strength.
• The further away the shaft is from the probe, the less it absorbs. The less
magnetic energy it absorbs, the less it uses up the carrier signal and the
higher the carrier signal strength remains
Transducers:
Displacement
• The probe produces 2 signals:
o AC signal proportional to the vibration (shaft movement).
o DC signal proportional to the size of the gap.
Generally, the applications are:
• Relatively lightweight rotors in massive housings and rigid (generally

“sleeve” or “babbit”) bearings.
• High speed rotors on machines such as turbines, centrifugal compressors
and pumps (where shaft speeds can exceed 50,000 rpm).
• Very slow speed machines on which it is difficult to obtain reliable data
with velocity transducers or accelerometers.
Machines such as these can fail catastrophically in an extremely short period

of time (hours, minutes or even seconds) from the initial onset of the
problem and on-line monitoring with permanently mounted proximity probes
is essential to both machine and human safety.
So you've got a collector, transducers and you understand the basics. How
do you set up a database ?
Plots :
The FFT (The Spectrum)
• What Is An FFT (Spectrum) Plot
• FFT "Tools" (How We Analyze)
• FFT Terminology (Terms We Use)
• How An FFT Is Created
• What An FFT Is Actually Made Up Of
• How Is An FFT Is Analyzed ?
• Important Facts To Remember When Analyzing An FFT
• Parameters That Determine "Spectrum Resolution"
• The Importance Of Spectrum Resolution
• Understanding Spectrum Resolution - Direct Drives
• Understanding Spectrum Resolution - Belt Drives
• How Do You Know What Spectrum Resolution Is Required ?
• Where To Collect High Resolution Data
• What Are "Beat" Frequencies ?
• Summary
What Is An FFT (Spectrum) Plot
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Data:
Frequency (number of cycles per minute or per second)
• Whereas a Trend is amplitude values versus time, a "Spectrum" Plot is

amplitude versus frequency.
• A spectrum, a.k.a. an "FFT", allows you to assess severity (with the amplitude)
and helps identify the source (with the frequency).
• This is the most commonly used analysis tool and is usually sufficient
protection for general speed machinery.
FFT Tools
Vibration spectra provides important clues to machine problems. There are
tools provided in all software packages that help with this analysis. The
most important are:
• Moveable Cursor - A "base" cursor that can be moved to any frequency and
identifies the amplitude at that frequency.
• Harmonic Cursors - Activating this tool creates additional cursors (as many
as are required) that appear at integer multiples of the base cursor. If the
base cursor is located at 1x rpm, harmonics will appear at 2x, 3x, 4x, etc.
This is the most important analysis tool available. All harmonic cursors are
at higher frequencies than the base cursor.
• Sideband Cursors - Activating this tool creates additional cursors at
frequencies to either side of the base cursor. If the 1st (closest) sideband
cursors are located 50 cpm to either side of the base cursor, additional
sideband cursors (as many as required) will each be located an additional
50 cpm away. For instance, the 2nd sideband cursors will be 100 cpm away
from the base cursor, the 3rd will be 150 cpm away, etc.
These three tools are sufficient for the beginner and for 99% of most
analyses. There are, of course, other useful tools such as " "labels" and
frequency groups but that is more vendor specific and should be learned in
a software class and through experience.
• Remember, ALL spectral analysis is limited in its use and accuracy by the
spectrum resolution.
FFT Terminology
Commonly used terms include:
• Fundamental Frequency - 1x rpm. Remember that a belt drive, for
instance, has three fundamental frequencies.
• Dominant Frequency - Frequency at which the highest amplitude occurs.
• Synchronous Vibration - Vibration harmonically related to a fundamental
frequency.
• Non-synchronous Vibration - Vibration not harmonically related to a
fundamental frequency.
• Sub-synchronous Vibration - Vibration occurring at a frequency below the
fundamental frequency.
How An "FFT" Plot Is Created ?
First, the vibration is "sampled" (collected) over a pre-determined period of
time. The period of time used for the sample will be based on parameters
programmed into either the database (for interval-based, route data
collection) or the analyzer (for in-depth, or "spot", analysis).
• Although sometimes a relatively simple sine
wave, it will far more often be a complex
signal with a number of different frequency
components.
• The "complex" signal shown below (still
simplistic compared to data collected on
most real machines) is made up of a 1x rpm
component (e.g unbalance) and a 5x rpm
component (e.g. number of vanes on the
impeller - "vane pass" frequency) being
generated by the machine.
• There can be (and usually are) far more
influences - background (frictional) noise,
misalignment, bearing problems, soft foot,
looseness, frequency modulation, amplitude
modulation, etc., etc., etc.
What the transducer actually 'senses' is an analog signal - one that mirrors
the actual movement of the bearing at the location of the transducer. The
signal processing that follows the analog signal collection consists of a
couple of mathematical processes:
• A/D converter - Converts the analog signal to a digital one.
• Fourier Transform - This process is based on the principle that any periodic
signal (e.g. vibration) can be broken down into a series of simple
sinewaves that, when combined, result in the shape of the original signal.
Using the above "complex" signal as an example, in practical terms the
principle means that the FFT process can deduce the two frequencies
(1x and 5x) that were present to create the signal we see. The signal is
fairly simple, though. Despite the presence of two signals, even we
could make that judgement.
That principle, however, can be extended to any periodic signal. For
each signal the FFT analyzes, there is one and only one mathematical
solution to the problem - a specific series of simple sinewaves of precise
amplitude values and phase relationships (which do NOT show up on the
resulting plot but ARE considered by the FFT as we will see later) that,
when combined, create the precise shape of the signal the FFT is
analyzing.
The FFT process is an extremely complex mathematical process that is being
applied to mechanical vibrations. Although a fairly reliable and useful tool, it
MUST be understood that a spectrum is always suspect because these
mathematical processes (A/D and FFT) often cause either or both of the
following to happen:
• Vibration peaks get added (like sidebands and harmonics) that don't
actually exist. That is not to say either are to be ignored - they can still
provide valuable clues to the analyst.
• Occurrences (events) that may be obvious when viewing the raw time
domain signal are completely lost.
It is the signal shape that is being analyzed and deviations due to any
mechanical problem from purely sinusoidal motion can cause the above
phenomenon (harmonics, sidebands) to occur. For these reasons, it is
strongly recommended that at the very least the time domain be used
where it is most useful and the spectrum is the weakest:
• Slow Speed Equipment
• Gear Applications
• Sleeve (Plain) Bearings
The reasons for this lie in what the FFT process actually does and what
factors influence its output (the spectrum).
What An "FFT" Is Actually Made Up Of ?
One of the "parameters" that must be programmed into the database or the
analyzer is known as the "Number of Lines" (of resolution). This parameter
determines how many individual amplitude values will make up the final FFT
plot. That is what a spectrum is made up of - a certain number of amplitude
values (e.g. 800) that each measure the vibration found in a relatively small
frequency range. This parameter - number of lines - works in conjunction with
your Maximum Frequency, or "Fmax", to establish your "Spectrum Resolution" -
a critically important subject. The Fmax divided by the # of lines equals the
spectrum resolution. The units are: "CPM per Line of Resolution"
Spectrum Resolution = Fmax .
Number of Lines
The spectrum shown

here shows 15 of the
amplitude ranges that
make up this
spectrum.
Close-up Look At FFT Plot Shows Individual, Frequency-Based Amplitudes

With Straight Lines Connecting The Dots
What An "FFT" Is Actually Made Up Of ?
• Each frequency range in this spectrum is 30 cpm wide. Each red circle is
labeled as an exact multiple of 30 except the peaks.
• The frequency values shown at the tops of the peaks are able to be
calculated more accurately.
• The y-axis value of each red circle is the amplitude for that frequency
range. For instance, the y-axis value for the red circle with the number
2130 above it is the amplitude of vibration detected by the FFT process
between frequencies of 2101 - 2130 cpm.
• The number of lines of resolution can be 100, 200, 800, 1600, 3200 (and
others) but typically is 400, 800 or 1600.
• The maximum frequency shown on the plot is called the Fmax. If you
select an Fmax of 60,000 cpm (60kcpm, 1000 Hz, 1kHz - all mean the
same thing), your spectrum will cover a frequency range of 0-60kcpm.
With 400 lines, for instance, each line of resolution will be 150 cpm wide
(60k/400=150).
• The width of each frequency range is called the Spectrum Resolution.
• It is of CRUCIAL importance to understand spectrum resolution.
How Is An FFT Analyzed
• "Are any of the amplitude values higher than desired ?"
o If the answer is "No", move on. Remember, this includes all areas of
the spectrum from 1x rpm thrugh harmonics out to high frequency,

bearing related frequencies while keeping in mind the amplitudes in
these ranges should be judged by different standards. For instance,
you should become alarmed at much lower amplitudes when analyzing
bearing-related vibrations than when analyzing 1x rpm amplitudes.
Sample Spectrum: Q1 - Are Any Amplitude Values Higher Than Desired ?
o If, however, the answer is "Yes", you must move on to a second

question:
• "Where are they coming from ?" More technically, what is the source of the
"excessive" amplitudes that you are concerned with ?
o The source of the vibration is judged by the frequency (s) of the
amplitude peak(s) being examined. Spectrum resolution must be kept
in mind during this process. The better the resolution, the better your
judgment.
Since the frequencies displayed actually cover frequency ranges, the best
judgment of frequency you can ever make from a spectrum is an estimate.
Spectrum resolution goes to the heart of a very important question - how
accurate is the data (frequencies) you are using for your analysis ? Without
fully understanding the implications spectrum resolution has for the data
you are analyzing, you will never be a good analyst.
Sample Spectrum: Q2 - Where Are (Any) High Vibration Amplitudes Coming From ?
This sample spectrum is taken from a machine as described above. How do we

analyze ?
• There is no indication of bearing problems (in the "Bearing Defect Frequency
Harmonics" area) so we would have no indication of a problem developing in
that range.
• Does the peak at 1800 concern us ?
There are no amplitude values shown here. The answers to the questions are
part of a judgment must be made by the analyst based on their understanding of
general vibration and that specific machine's normal operating (vibration)
characteristics.
So if the answer is YES, further judgment must be made of the source
(unbalance, misalignment, soft foot, etc.) and the problem must be corrected.
Part of the judgment will be an assessment of the severity of the problem based
on the vibration levels seen, type of problem, criticality of the machine, etc.
Important Facts To Remember When Analyzing An FFT
1) Frequencies on a spectrum are always estimates. Therefore, judgments
you make are always based on assumptions.
2) Turning an estimate into a fact can only be done with field testing (phase
readings, etc.).
3) A spectrum is not necessarily an accurate reflection of what the machine

is doing - it should always be looked at with a certain level of skepticism
and supplemented with time domain analysis.
Spectrum Resolution
Spectrum Resolution = Max Frequency (Fmax) Spectrum Resolution Units:
# of Lines of Resolution "CPM per Line of Resolution"
Common Choices for: Common Choices for:

Lines of Resolution: Fmax:
200 720,000 90,000 3,000
400 900,000 120,000 6,000
800 1,200,000 180,000 12,000
1,600 1,500,000 240,000 24,000
3,200 1,800,000 300,000 30,000
6,400 2,400,000 600,000 60,000

Spectrum Resolution
Question: What Does Spectrum Resolution Actually Do ?
Answer: It determines the accuracy of the frequency data you are analyzing.
Question: Why is that important ?
Answer: Frequency is how we identify the source of the vibration.
Lets look at a couple of examples where understanding spectrum resolution

can be the difference between a correct diagnosis and an incorrect
diagnosis.
Understanding Spectrum Resolution:
Direct-Drive / Example 1
The FFT shown here displays data from 0 - 120kcpm. You have made the
judgment that one of the peaks shown in the low-mid frequency range
(1800-7200 cpm in this case) is excessive. How reliably can you answer the
following questions:
What is the source of the vibration at 1,800 cpm ?
• Obvious choice - 1x rpm: Since it is a direct drive machine and we will
make the assumption that there is no other vibration feeding into this
machine from another, you have a very good probability of being right
(note that it is not a 100% probability) if you say that peak is the vibration
1x rpm.
• Obvious choice - 2x rpm: Since the machine is running around 1800,
chances are again fairly good you will be right if you say this peak is
related to 2x rpm.

• Obvious choice - 4x rpm: This could be the 4x running speed harmonic and
many people would think that is the obvious choice - but that would be
very risky because there is another vibration source very close to this
range. 2x AC line frequency in the U.S. is 7200 cpm (6000 cpm in
countries with 50 Hz power supply) and could very well be any proportion
of that amplitude.
• For example, if the machine is running 1780 rpm (1480 rpm in 50Hz
countries), 4x that is 7120 cpm (5920 cpm in 50Hz countries). That is 80
cpm away from 2x line frequency (7200 cpm or 6000 cpm) - much less
than the 300 cpm/line spectrum resolution. That means the energy from
both of the vibrations will be quantified in the same line of resolution (i.e.
combine into one, single peak).
Are you monitoring bearing defect frequency harmonics sufficiently ?
• Yes. With a machine running 1800, collecting an FFT to 120kcpm is
sufficient to monitor the full range of frequencies in which bearing-related
peaks will appear.
Summary: This is a good general purpose spectrum for fully monitoring the
frequency ranges in which likely problems will show up but with a spectrum
resolution of only 300 cpm/line, that could be a problem for any detailed
analysis. Let's continue by reducing the Fmax.
judgement that one of the peaks shown in the low-mid frequency range
• Obvious choice - Still 1x rpm: Since it is a direct drive machine and we will
make the assumption that there is no other vibration feeding into this
machine from another, you have a very good probability of being right
(note that it is not a 100% probability) if you say that peak is the vibration
1x rpm.
• Obvious choice - Still 2x rpm: Since the machine is running around 1800,
chances are again fairly good you will be right if you say this peak is
related to 2x rpm.
• Obvious choice - ?: This could be the 4x running speed harmonic but could
also be 2x AC line frequency and could also very well be a combination of
the two vibrations since the vibration energy from each falls within the
same line of resolution.

• No. With a machine running 1800, collecting an FFT to 60kcpm is probably
NOT sufficient to monitor the full range of frequencies in which bearing-
related peaks will appear.
Summary: Not the best choice for fully monitoring the frequency ranges in
which likely problems will show up since not only do you have mediocre
spectrum resolution (150 cpm/line) but you also are not monitoring the full
range of vibration frequencies in which bearing problems will show up. Let's
again reduce the Fmax.
• Obvious Choice - Still 1x rpm: Notice that the frequencies listed have
changed. Now that each line of resolution is only 30 cpm wide
(12000/400), the accuracy of the frequencies displayed has improved as
well. As the resolution improves, the likelihood that the peak is 1x rpm
continues to improve but will never reach a 100% certainty.
• Obvious choice - Still 2x rpm: See the explanation for 1x rpm.

• Obvious choice - ?: At this point, you may notice the harmonics not lining
up perfectly with the4x rpm peak. Note that it is also labelling a bit higher
(7190 cpm) than 4x rpm would be. This may well be 2x AC line frequency
and could still be a combination of both vibrations since the vibration
energy from each falls in adjacent lines of resolution.

• No. Not even close. This is a spectrum useful only for monitoring low-mid
frequency sources.
Summary: A reasonable choice for monitoring the lower, mechanical
frequency ranges in which likely problems will show at running speed
harmonics. There is no monitoring of vibration frequencies in which bearing
problems will show up. Let's now increase the number of lines instead of
reducing the Fmax.
The FFT shown here displays data from 0 - 12kcpm but with 1600 lines of
resolution instead of the 400 lines each of the previous FFTs contained. How
reliably can you answer the following questions:
• Obvious Choice - Still 1x rpm: Notice that the frequencies listed have
changed. Now that each line of resolution is only 7.5 cpm wide
(12000/1600), the accuracy of the frequencies displayed has improved as
well. As the resolution improves, the likelihood that the peak is 1x rpm
continues to improve but will never reach a 100% certainty.
• Obvious choice - Still 2x rpm: See the explanation for 1x rpm.
• You can finally differentiate between 4x rpm and 2x line frequency: 2x line
frequency (7200 cpm) is the higher amplitude vibration. Note that there is
also vibration at 4x rpm (7160 cpm) but it is of lower amplitude. The
choice for corrective action if the vibration was 4x rpm vs. 2x line
frequency is completely different. Failure to recognize the limitations of the
previous FFTs and make this further anaysis could lead to embarassing and
expensive mistakes.
• No. Not even close. This is a spectrum useful only for monitoring low-mid
frequency sources.
Summary: A very good choice for monitoring the lower, mechanical
frequency ranges and separating the mechanical frequencies from the
electrical frequencies in that range.There is, of course, no monitoring of
vibration frequencies in which bearing problems will show up. Let's repeat
the process on a belt-driven piece of equipment.
Zoom-In On Smaller Frequency Range (6k - 9kcpm)
Note that with a >400 line spectrum, you can "zoom-in" on narrow
frequency ranges and appear to have "normal" spectrum resolution. This is
because the software stores however many amplitude values (800, 1600,
3200, etc.) even though it can only display 400 or so due to limitations of
the CPU monitor.
Belt-Drive / Example 1
(< 12kcpm) is excessive. How reliably can you answer the following
questions:
What is the source of any of the vibrations apparent in the<12kcpm range ?
• Entirely Unclear: As a belt-driven piece of equipment, there are 3 rotating
components (motor, fan, belts) plus the same 2x line frequency we
touched on in the direct-drive example. If you venture a guess as to the
source of any particular peak, you have about a 1 in 3 or 4 chance of being
correct - not the best of odds.
• Yes. With a machine running 1800, collecting an FFT to 120kcpm is
sufficient to monitor the full range of frequencies in which bearing-related
peaks will appear.
Summary: A spectrum really suited to bearing monitoring and low-mid
frequency trending only - no specific frequencies are identifiable in the lower
frequency ranges. Let's proceed with the same sequence of FFTs as shown
in the previous example.
(< 12kcpm) is excessive. How reliably can you answer the following
questions:
• Still Very Unclear: As a belt-driven piece of equipment, there are 3 rotating
components (motor, fan, belts) plus the same 2x line frequency we
touched on in the direct-drive example. You may have improved your
chances of guessing right but you are still guessing..
• Not really. With a machine running 1800, collecting an FFT to 60kcpm is
probably not sufficient to monitor the full range of frequencies in which
bearing-related peaks will appear.
Summary: A spectrum not really fully suited for either purpose - bearing
monitoring or low-mid frequency trending. Let's drop the Fmax further still.
judgement that one of the peaks specifically in the low-mid frequency
range we are looking at is excessive. How reliably can you answer the
• Much Clearer: Knowing that mechanical vibrations occur only at exact
multiples (harmonics) of running speed (including 1x), we can assume the
following:
o 900 cpm - 1x Fan (high likelihood)
o 1170 cpm - 2x Belts (high likelihood)
o 1770 cpm - 1x Motor (reasonable possibility - could also be 2x Fan or
3x Belts, couldn't it ?). Most likely - ???
o 2340 cpm - 4x Belts (high likelihood)
o 3540 cpm - 2x Motor (probable - 4x Fan and 6x Belts could also be
affecting this peak although the probability is pretty low for either of
those). Most likely - 2x Motor.
o 7200 cpm - 2x Line Frequency (with a resolution of 30 cpm/line and
the motor running at 1785, 4x motor will be 7140 - 2 full lines of
resolution away from 2x line freq.), or 8x fan rpm (8 could be the
number of blades on fan). The most likely is 2x line frequency but that
doesn't make it so.
• No. This spectrum does not serve that purpose.
Summary: A fairly good spectrum for resolution at the low-frequency end -

but is it enough ? Let's increase the number of lines to 1600.
The FFT shown here displays data from 0 - 3.6kcpm. You have made the
judgment that one of the peaks specifically in this "mechanical" range
(dealing with rpm's) we are looking at is excessive. Because you have
sufficient resolution, you can now incorporate the "process of elimination"
into your thought processes (when a source becomes the only logical
possibility). How reliably can you answer the following questions:
What is the source of any of the vibrations apparent in the<3.6kcpm range ?
• Much Clearer Than Before: Knowing that mechanical vibrations occur only
at exact multiples (harmonics) of running speed (including 1x), we now
have a much more reliable assumption than with the e following:
o 1177 cpm - 2x Belts (high likelihood simply via process of elimination)
o 1770 cpm - Three separate mechanical vibrations had previously
combined to form this peak. Because of the new spectrum resolution of
7.5 cpm/line, they are now separated on the FFT once you zoom-in on
that portion of the plot. Now they can be judged for cause and severity
and what might have mistakenly been called motor unbalance (1x
motor) can correctly be called belt problems (3x belt typical frequency
generated by belt problems - could be wear, resonance, etc.) along
with possibly some mechanical looseness on the fan (2x fan typical
frequency generated by looseness around the fan bearings and/or the
surrounding structure). The three are:
•3x Belts is the highest amplitude of the three.
•2x Fan is the second highest amplitude of the three.
•1x Motor is by far the lowest of the three.
o 2340 cpm - 4x Belts (high likelihood by process of elimination)
o 2700 cpm - 3x Fan (high likelihood by process of elimination)
o 3540 cpm - 2x Motor (probable - 4x Fan and 6x Belts could also be
affecting this peak although the probability is pretty low for either of
those). Most likely - 2x Motor.
What About The 7.2kcpm peak ?
• 7200 cpm - Can't see from this spectrum but we can also zoom-in on that
frequency range when done analyzing this frequency range.
• No. This spectrum does not serve that purpose.
Summary: A very good spectrum for resolution at the low-frequency end -
but is it enough ?
But is it possible that the three frequencies in the 1762 - 1807 cpm range could
have lined up even more closely ?
Of course. It is not uncommon to find belt-generated frequencies aligning
themselves very closely with driven or driver component frequencies. Let's
discuss a not-to-remote possibility:
The belts run at 600 rpm and the fan runs at 1192 rpm. 2x belts - a normal
frequency belts will generate when experiencing wear or other problems - would
then be 1200 cpm - a mere 8 cpm apart from one another. Furthermore, you
don't know the belt speed. After all, it is probably more common to not know the
belt speed than it is to know it. How easy would it be to try to go balance that
fan (the most likely source of 1x rpm vibration; especially on a fan: unbalance).
And how embarassing and expensive could that be for you and for the credibility
of the vibration program.
You should always, Always, ALWAYS confirm your vibration source before before
attempting any significant corrective actions such as balancing (tightening loose
bolts, for instance, can be done as they are found).
How Do You Know What Spectrum Resolution Is Required ?
Rule of Thumb:
Spectrum Resolution should be 33% of difference between the frequencies.
• In previous example, frequencies of interest were:

o 1,762 cpm
o 1,785 cpm
o 1,807 cpm
• Smallest difference is 22 cpm (1,807 - 1,785 = 22).
• Spectrum resolution should be 22/3 = 7.33 cpm/line
Why 1/3 ?
• It means that there will be at least TWO lines of resolution between the
frequencies in question.
• This assures proper separation of the peaks.
Where To Collect "High Resolution" Data
Spectrum Resolution = Max Frequency (Fmax).
# of Lines of Resolution
Direct Drive [12,000 Fmax / 1,600 Lines]
Machines:
• Collected for all >10 HP Motors.
• Will allow separation of mechanical / electrcial frequencies.
• This is particularly important on 2-pole ac induction motors
since it will be easy to confuse 2x rpm for 2x line frequency.
Belt Drive [12,000 Fmax / 1,600 Lines]

Machines:
• Collected for >10 HP Motors. In addition to performing the
above tasks;
• Will greatly improve chances of being able to separate
motor, driven and belt frequencies from one another. Note
that it does not say guarantee the separation of those
frequencies.
Where To Collect "High Resolution" Data
[6,000 Fmax / 400 Lines]
• Collected on inboard (pulley end) of driven component
bearing for same (mechanical) reasons as listed above.
• This can be adjusted to meet specific needs if the actual
speeds are determined.
Beat • Any time there is a cycling or "beat" frequency is

Frequencies: encountered there are two frequencies very close to one
another. Understanding spectrum resolution will enable you
to calculate what is needed and use it appropriately.
What Are "Beat" Frequencies ?
What is meant by the term: "beat frequencies" ? If you work in a place with
lots of machines, you have probably felt or heard one. Have you ever walked
by a machine and felt or heard the vibration increasing . . . and then going
away . . . and then increasing . . . and then going away . . . etc., etc. That is
a "Beat" vibration.
Beat vibrations are caused by vibrations that have very close to the same
period and similar amplitudes.
• The animation shown here shows two

separate sine waves - the red 1x rpm
component of a 2-pole motor and the line
frequency being supplied to that motor.
Either can cause mechanical vibration.
• Note that the amplitudes are the same.
The amplitudes must be at least similar to
produce a beat. Otherwise, the dominant
amplitude will be only slightly affected by
the much lower amplitude and the effect
will not be felt.
What does this interaction of these signals produce ?
What Are "Beat" Frequencies ?
• You can see here that when the peaks coincide (they are 'in-phase'), they
add together and create more vibration than either single signal produces
by itself.
• When they oppose one another (they are out-of-phase), they cancel each
other out and the vibration disappears - for a moment, anyway.
• The "Beat" frequency is simply how often these separate signals go in-
phase with one another. It might be 10 times a minute or 20 times a
minute.
• The difference between the two frequencies IS the beat frequency. By
measuring the frequency of the beat (when you can feel or hear it), you
can actually determine what spectrum resolution you need to separate the
2 peaks on a spectrum by simply counting the number of beats that occur
in one minute or so (or portion of a minute) and dividing by 3.
For example, a 2-pole US motor is running at, say, 3580 rpm. Line
frequency is 3600 cpm. The difference is 20 cpm. That means if the 1x rpm
component and the line frequency component have similar amplitudes, there
will be a beat frequency occurring at 20 cpm. If you have ever walked past a
motor and heard it "humming", it is a beat vibration being generated by the
interaction of mechanical and electrical frequencies.
Summary
The FFT is without a doubt the most widely used vibration analysis plot. But
it would be a mistake to consider the FFT to be the infallible or the only
analysis tool. Spectrum resolution is perhaps the single most important plot
characteristic to fully and completely understand. It is also very important to
understand how a spectrum is generated - the concepts behind the FFT
process without getting into the technicalities. An understanding of the FFT
process will further boost your ability to effectively analyze an FFT.
Plots:
The Time Domain
• What Is A "Time Domain" Plot
• How Do You Analyze A Time Domain Plot
• The Relationship Between The Time Domain and The FFT
o Frequency Modulation (Harmonics)
o Amplitude Modulation (Sidebands)
• Where Time Domain Plots Can Be Invaluable
o Beat frequencies
o Bearing defects
o Gear tooth defects
o Rubs (Truncated Wave Shapes)
• How To Become Comfortable With Time Domain
• Setting Up Time Domain Plot Parameters
• Summary
What Is A "Time Domain" Plot ?
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
The "Time Domain" plot is a powerful tool to use for analysis since it is as
close to the raw (analog) data as you are likely to get. It also can be quite
intimidating to learn to use (with good reason) and many analysts do not use
it at all. Even more than the FFT, it creates a number of questions for the
analyst:
What Is A "Time Domain" Plot ?
• How is it interpreted ?
• How is one set up ?
• Should I use it everywhere ?
• Why do I need it at all when I have the FFT to use ?
This section of the manual will provide you with information on how to use
and interpret the time domain plot. More importantly (since it is from this
signal that an FFT plot is produced) this section will attempt to give you a
general understanding of how the FFT process views the signals we feed into
it and how these signals impact what we see when we look at an FFT.
The time domain, of course, is where the reading begins - an analog
measurement of how the surface is moving. This analog signal is fed from
the transducer to the analyzer where it is converted to a digital signal - it
goes through an A/D converter. The result of this process can be seen above
in the plot above.
It is important to realize that it is experience (i.e. practice) that creates a
'comfort' level for the analyst in interpreting the time domain plot.
Experience in setting it up properly and experience in being able to recognize
what you are seeing - the pattern of what you are seeing. Let's zoom in on
this plot.
How Do You Analyze A Time Domain Plot ?
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
The time domain plot shown here is a small portion (time-wise) of the
previous plot - a zoom-in. At first glance, what do we see ?
• A series of spikes - perhaps 50 or so. Each of these 'spikes' is a cycle of
vibration just as the nice smooth animated sine waves we previously
examined were. The difference, however, is obvious - these are not nice,
smooth sine waves. This is a 'real-world' time domain plot.
• The amplitude of the 'spikes' varies a great deal.
• There appears, at times, to be changes in frequency of the spikes (in some
areas, there are 2x or 3x as many spikes than in other areas).
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
But let's look a little more in-depth. What are we actually seeing here ? It
would only be fair to tell you the reading was collected on a gearbox. Let's
break our analysis into the frequencies and amplitudes.
• Frequency
o The 50 or so cycles occur in a very short period of time - they are
measuring 'high frequency' vibration (the shorter the period of the

cycle, the higher the frequency). As you probably guessed, it is actually
the gear mesh frequency.
o What is the source of the 'extra' cycles we noticed in the areas of low
amplitude ? They appear to be occurring about twice per (gearmesh)
cycle when they do occur. One possible explanation would be a
momentary 'chattering' of the teeth (the teeth bouncing back and
forth) due to excessive backlash.
o Also, some of the spikes appear fatter than others. What this means is
that particular cycle (or part of that cycle) is taking slightly longer (in
milli or even micro seconds) than other cycles. In vibration terms, this
is known as frequency modulation. When a signal is put through the
FFT process, frequency modulation causes harmonics.We will see why
in a few more pages but the first question should be - what could
cause this ?
o Have you ever tried turning a shaft - even in a childrens toy - that is
easy to turn for part of a rotation and hard to turn for the other part of
the rotation ? That binding action can occur in industrial machinery for
any number of reasons. But why is it occurring here ?
So we can find a number of seemingly small details by analyzing the time

scale and how the cycles are occurring. Let's now examine the amplitude
data.
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
What can we see from the amplitudes being displayed ?
• The gear mesh peaks are changing size - "modulating". That means the amplitudes
are not always the same. But how are they modulating - are the amplitudes
changing a predictable amount within a predictable period of time ? Or does it seem
more random in nature ?
• If you had the tools necessary to analyze the plot, you would find the amplitudes get
high once per shaft revolution and low once per shaft revolution. In vibration terms,
the gear mesh amplitudes are modulating at 1x rpm.
• There is no obvious 1x rpm sinusoid - the dominant amplitude is at gear mesh
frequency.
So putting all of this analysis information together, what can be seen ?
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
Let's review what we have.

• A dominant gear mesh frequency that is experiencing both amplitude and
frequency modulation.
• 'Extra' cycles that appear to occur twice as often as the dominant gear
mesh cycle.
• A low amplitude 1x rpm signal.
Possible Explanation
A possible explanation (only testing and inspection can prove anything) for
these patterns would be improper gear mesh setting (pitch diameters not in-
line at all times). For part of the gear's rotation, the teeth are too tightly set.
That increases the resistance to rotation and drives up the gear mesh
amplitude. For the balance of the rotation, the teeth have excessive
backlash. That decreases any resistance to rotation and reduces the gear
mesh amplitude but also allows the teeth to bounce back and forth (chatter).
Action Recommended
Unfortunately, we have only reached the level of an educated guess at this
point. The data points in a direction but there could be any number of other
problems influencing the patterns we are seeing and analyzing. Our
"explanation" is based on probabilities and, if we have it, previous
experience. We must now go into our LEARN MODE. What is the learn
mode ? It is the mode where we are actively involved in any investigation
and corrective action(s) taken so we can learn from what we find. If you do
not use the LEARN MODE (and sometimes it requires you making it happen),
you will not learn from your successes or (and more importantly) your
mistakes.
The Relationship Between The Time Domain And The FFT
The following pages contain plots that will allow us to look at the FFT
process backwards. These "complex" time domain signals are the result of
programming in a series of amplitudes and frequencies from an FFT and
then seeing what the resulting time domain looks like. Although mechanical
vibration will always be more complex than what we analyze here, it is
illustrative to see the process working in reverse.
In order to understand the complexities of the FFT process, let's look at how
it works in its most basic form - analyzing a simple sinusoid. That is what
you see in Figure 1. Performing an FFT on Figure 1 would generate the plot
you see in Figure 2 - a single peak at 1x rpm.
Pure Sinusoidal Motion

Result Of Running Fig. 1 Signal Through FFT Process
The FFT process sees a simple sinusoid and calculates the period (time
required) for a single cycle. In Figure 1, the period is 40 msec (the x-axis
units are milliseconds = 0.040 seconds). Then, do the following:
• Period =40 msecs per cycle [0.04 secs / cycle]. We have seconds per cycle
- we want cycles per second since we are interested in frequency.
• Frequency (Hz) = 1 / 0.040 = 25 cycles per second [25Hz]. If we want
cycles per second:
• Frequency (cpm) = 25 Hz x 60 seconds / minute = 1500 cycles per minute
[CPM].
The FFT is created with a peak at 1500 cpm (25Hz). The amplitude shown
will be based on the Window type shown and whether you have a signal
detection of RMS, peak, peak to peak or true-peak.
Unfortunately, in the mechanical world there are only two problems that
cause such a pure sinusoid to occur (and it will only be pure if they are the
only problems present):
• Unbalance
• Resonance
What about less than pure sinusoidal motion. Any thoughts on what could
possibly cause the signal shown below ? More importantly, what does the
FFT process "see" as the combination of signals that would create what we
see in this signal ?
Figure 1: A Signal That Is Not Sinusoidal
The FFT looks like thsi when applied to the signal shown above. Why ?

Because the FFT process "sees" the combination of two distinct signals: one at 1x rpm
and one at 2x rpm. The two signals are in-phase with each other (the "+" peaks line
up). When the "+" peaks line up, the very high peaks occur (0, 40, 80 msecs). When
the "-" peak on the 1x wave lines up with the "+" peak on the 2x wave (20, 60, 100
msecs), you get the small "bump" at the bottom of the wave.

Let's look at another signal with a completely different shape. Can you see
in your mind a bearing moving in this manner ? What types of mechanical
problems do you think could cause the shape of the signal shown here in
Figure 1 ? What does the FFT process see ?
Figure 1 - The Raw Signal
It may surprise you to find that putting this signal through an FFT will
generate an identical spectrum to the one we saw on the previous page.
Figure 2 - The Resulting FFT

Why ? It is clearly a very different signal. Or is it ? As a matter of fact, exactly the
same combination of signals went into creating this one with one difference - the 2x
component has shifted 1/4 of a cycle on the time line relative to the 1x component -
the 2x signal is a 90° out-of-hase with the 1x signal.
Figure 3 - What The FFT "Sees"

The Relationship Between The Time Domain And The FFT:
Frequency Modulation
So is it safe to assume that each of the previous signals were generated by a machine
that is generating vibration at 1x rpm and 2x rpm (i.e. a reciprocating compressor) ?
Or could there be another explanation for the signal shape seen on those pages
(which is really what is being analyzed - the signal shape) ? Let's return to our
discussion of the actual, real-life vibration signal we looked at a few pages back.
• We discussed how there can be some variation in the free rotation of the shaft - a
momentary "binding" action that occurs as the shaft rotates through a particular
portion of it's rotation.
• That phenomenon could occur for a number of reasons. In that situation, we
considered the possibility of the gears being improperly set. That would create more
resistance to rotation when the teeth were bottomed out than opposite that point. It
would momentarily slow down the rotation.
Let's examine the 'frequency modulated' signal shown here:
Figure 2:
A Bearing Undergoing Frequency
Figure 1: A "Frequency Modulated" Signal Modulation During Each Rotation
• Let's first examine the positive-going portion of the signal. The bottom of
the cycle (the '-' peak) first occurs at about 19 msec. The '+' peak occurs
at about 32 msec so it takes a total of about 13 msec to move from the "-"
peak to the "+" peak. The reciprocal of the period will give us the
frequency during that portion of the signal:
o 1/(0.013 x 2) x 60 = 2308 cpm (the 13 msecs is multiplied by 2 to
calculate a full cycle).

• Now let's examine the negative going peak. From the "+" peak at 32
msec, the signal descends to a "-" peak by about 53 msec - a total of 21
msec. For that portion of the signal, the shaft rotates:
o 1/(0.021 x 2) x 60 = 1429 cpm.
• Yet if we simply calculate the total time for one cycle (peak to peak), we
measure from 19 msec to 53 msec - about 34 msec.
o 1/(0.034) x 60 = 1765 cpm.
This is called frequency modulation. What is happening here may or may not be evident if we
were to analyze the time domain signal - it will depend on the resolution (yes, time domain is just
as dependent on resolution as the FFT is), the time sample, number of bytes, etc. But remember,
the question we are discussing here is how will the FFT treat this phenomenon ?
The FFT only deals in pure sinusoids. So how will it account for the frequency modulation we see
here ? We will unquestionably have a peak around 1765 cpm but the signal is not a pure sinusoid
- it is distorted by the frequency modulation we see. How does the FFT mathematically explain
this phenomenon ?
In other words, what combination of simple sinusoids, when combined, will generate the signal
we see above ?
So the FFT has fed into it the following signal:
Figure 1 - Signal Being Analyzed
So what does the FFT "see" ? This plot was generated from the signal in
Figure 1:
Figure 3 - What The FFT "Sees"

So we have peaks at 1x, 2x and 3x rpm. But how can the spectrum we see in
Figure 2 be the result of performing an FFT on the signal we see in
Figure 1 ?
If the signal shape in Figure 1 is a result of a "binding" action, then there are
no 2x or 3x components present - only 1x rpm. Why does the FFT add these
peaks ?
The answer is actually very simple - it is precisely that combination of simple
sinusoids - 1x, 2x and 3x - in exact amplitude and phase relationships that
generates the signal shape we see. Any change in the amplitude values of
any of these simple sinusoids or their phase relationship to one another and
the resulting signal shape will be altered. Here are the 3 signals that
combined to generate the previous signal:
Figure 1 - The Three Simple Sinusoids
What, exactly, are these signals ?

• 1x rpm w/ amplitude of 1.8 (pk-pk) and no phase shift ('+' peak on y-axis)
• 2x rpm w/ amplitude of 0.45 (pk-pk) and 90° phase shift
• 3x rpm w/ amplitude of 0.05 (pk-pk) and 180° phase shift ('-' peak on y-
axis)
Note that the phase relationships are not displayed on the FFT - it only
displays amplitudes and frequencies although the FFT process does use
phase in its analysis.
So this "distorted" signal shape:
is explained (by the FFT) as the result of

this combination of simple sinusoids:
and the FFT process generates this plot:
So what does all of this mean ? The frequency modulation we see in the
original signal generates the presence of harmonics.
Frequency Modulation creates harmonics.
Are all harmonics the result of frequency modulation ? No. There are
mechanical viration sources that generate vibration at multiples of running
speed (i.e. reciprocating units @ 2x rpm). But some harmonics - more often
than not those associated with problems such as misalignment - are the
result of frequency modulation. They are mathematically created.
The previous example may or may not have impressed upon you a
rather stunning fact:
• Many (even most, at times) peaks on the spectrum are not actually being
generated by the machine - they are generated by the FFT process due to
the shape of the signal being processed.
That's a rather depressing statement - many of the peaks are not being
generated by the machine (they don't actually exist). It shouldn't be a
surprise though. This is a process that relies on a complex mathematical
principle to analyze data that comes from dynamic machines with many,
many different variables being applied to them (do you have unbalance,
misalignment, is the base solid, the pipes lined up, etc., etc., etc.).
On the bright side, it also illustrates why it is useless to try to identify
every peak on a spectrum (a trap many analysts, unfortunately, fall
into). Let's look at the situation another way.
If you knew that when a machine had a misalignment problem that your
computer would blow out a puff of blue smoke - the more misalignment
the more smoke - would you care about the precise details of why your
computer would do that or would you simply be happy knowing you
could count on that notification ?
The point is that when machines have particular problems -
misalignment, for instance - those machines will vibrate in certain ways
characteristic to the problem they have and those problems will affect
the shape of the signal they generate. This applies, for instance, to the
binding action seen on the previous page attributed to gears bottoming
out. The shape of the signal being generated due to that particular
problem will be affected in a reasonably consistently way. Under those
conditions, the FFT process will generate a reasonably consistent result
(the plot we see). Subtle changes to the shape will change the spectrum
but on the whole, certain patterns you learn to recognize on the FFT plot
will lead you to investigate certain problems based on the likelihood of
finding that problem - the more likely (and easier to check) problems go
first and on down the list. Three or four different problems may each
generate similar spectrums - it is up to you to differentiate between
those similar symptoms and solve the problem.
YOU CAN'T DO THAT SITTING AT A COMPUTER !!
Why is all this important ? Because:
• Understanding the inherent limitations and shortcomings of an FFT should
impress upon you the tremendous importance of field testing and
troubleshooting.
• It must be recognized that the spectrum provides clues and insights - not
facts. It is only one tool you have in your battle to protect your machines.
• Although the FFT always "works" (we will get a plot), sometimes we do not
understand what it is telling us. To attempt corrective actions without a
thorough investigation can be . . risky.
• The time domain plot can provide valuable clues and insights and in some
situations will provide information that is impossible to determine from the
FFT.
Amplitude Modulation
We have discussed frequency modulation and its impact on the spectrum plot
- namely, it creates harmonics. But we have also touched on amplitude
modulation - now let's cover it more in-depth. Amplitude modulation is a
increase and decrease in the amplitude of a particular frequency at a
different frequency. So for instance your gear mesh amplitude gets high once
per shaft revolution and gets low once per shaft revolution - the gear mesh
amplitude is modulating at 1x rpm. That's simple enough but what effect
does that have on the FFT (i.e. how doe the FFT explain it) ? Let's look at
some examples:
What do you make of the time domain plot shown in Figure 1 ?
Figure 1
You can see a low frequency cycle (occurring 15 times over the time sample)
and a high frequency (occurring many times for each of the low frequency
cycles). One way to describe this is as "a high frequency riding a low
frequency". For analysis, let's zoom in:
Figure 2 - One Cycle Of Low Frequency
Figure 2 shows only just over one of the low frequency cycles (one peak to
just past the next peak). The high frequency could be a gear meshing
frequency. The low frequency is at 1x rpm. How many teeth are on the
gear ? This is another advantage of using time domain on gearboxes - you
can actually obtain detailed internal information that you can only guess at
on the spectrum. Count the small peaks from the top of one low frequency
peak to the next. There are 23 teeth. What does the spectrum look like ?
Figure 3 - The Resulting FFT
Both the amplitudes and the frequencies are constant - there is no

modulation in either. You will only get the peaks that are actually being
generated. Now let's consider some variations on this "perfect" gearbox.
Amplitude Modulation (Sidebands)
Remember this plot from the first page in this section ? Well, Figure 2 shows
a computer generated plot that is somewhat similar:
Figure 1 - Actual Time Domain Signal

Figure 2 - Computer Generated Time Domain Signal
You can see the low frequency (usually 1x rpm) cycle still occurring but this
shape looks somewhat like an Angel Fish. This shape is typical of an
amplitude modulation. Let's zoom in on the computer generated signal to get
a clearer picture of what is happening.
Figure 3
Figure 3 shows only a bit more than a single one of the low frequency cycles.
It is clear that the high frequency signal (the gear mesh amplitude) is
increasing and decreasing in amplitude at a rate of once per shaft revolution.
Figure 4 shows the two signals involved separated:
Figure 4
This represents what we were discussing before - a modulation of gear mesh

amplitude once per shaft revolution due to a gear problem. The amplitude
varies significantly at a rate of once per revolution. How does the FFT handle
amplitude modulation ? Figure 5 shows you:
Figure 5
Figure 5 shows a peak at 1x rpm and a peak at gear mesh frequency (GMF)
with smaller peaks surrounding it. It you could measure the frequencies
involved, you would see that the smaller peaks are equally spaced around
the large peak - the separation is equal to the frequency of 1x rpm. There
may be a series of these peaks called sidebands around the gear mesh
frequency. This series of peaks are what would mathematically cause the
amplitude to go up and down (modulate) as the peaks go in and out of phase
with one another. The difference between sidebands and other noise around
a peak is the equal spacing (1x rpm in this case). Peaks that are not equally
spaced are most likely not sidebands.
Peaks on the higher frequency side of the large peak will be located at GMF +
1x rpm, GMF + 2x rpm, GMF + 3x rpm, etc. On the low frequency side of
GMF, the peaks will be located at GMF - 1x rpm, GMF - 2x rpm, etc. The
spacing of the peaks is the key indicator in where the problem lies. The
spacing at 1x rpm indicates the gear running at that frequency (speed) is the
source of the problem.
Although not nearly as common as harmonics, sidebands are critically
important to learn to recognize for a couple of reasons:
• Sidebands always indicate a problem (amplitude modulation is never
"normal").
• Sidebands are only generated by three types of problems:
o Gear-related problems
o Bearing-related problems
o Electrically-related problems
• Sidebands can be significant at very low amplitudes (their mere presence

can be significant).
• Sidebands should be analyzed on a logarithmic scale (as opposed to a
linear amplitude scale) so the low-amplitude peaks can be detected.
The Addition Of Sidebands Is The FFT's Explanation Of The Presence Of

Frequency And Amplitude Modulation
Now let's have some real fun !! What do you see in the time domain plot
shown in Figure 1 ?
Figure 1 - The "Complex" Signal
The most noticeable characteristic is the 'Angel Fish' pattern we saw on the
previous page. Let's start to zoom in and see what else we have.
Figure 2 - A Close Up Of The "Complex" Signal (Perhaps 60msecs)

Figure 2 above looks very similar to the signal analyzed on the previous page
except that the gear mesh amplitude actually drops to about 0 once per shaft
revolution - there is more gear mesh amplitude modulation than we
previously had - so we would expect to see a similar FFT except that the
sidebands would be higher and possibly greater in number. Let's look at the
individual signals that went to create Figures 1 and 2:
Figure 3 - The "Complex" Signal Components Separated
It is now clear that the 1x rpm signal is nowhere near a pure (clean) sinusoid
? Note how wide the trough of the wave shape is compared to the peak.
Something is causing the 'binding' action we have discussed (frequency
modulation) - at once per revolution (1x rpm). So we can expect to see 1x,
2x and 3x rpm peaks on the spectrum plus a peak at gear mesh frequency
with sidebands surrounding it at 1x rpm. That's it, right ? To be on the safe
side, let's look even closer:
Figure 4 - A Close Up Of The Gear Mesh Signal (~5 msecs)
We've been hasty again. It is now clear that the gears are also binding
momentarily as they go in and out of mesh - perhaps they are incorrectly
aligned (note that the seemingly straight green line shown in Figure 4 is
actually a small portion of the 1x rpm signal). The gold signal shows about 3-
1/2 cycles of the gear mesh signal. Clearly, the slope of the gear mesh signal
is steeper in the positive going direction than in the negative going direction
- more frequency modulation but this frequency modulation is for the gear
mesh signal. Now let's look at the resultant FFT:
Figure 5 - The FFT Generated From Figure 1
We have:
• 1x, 2x, 3x rpm peaks
• 1x, 2x, 3x gear mesh frequency peaks
• Sidebands around gear mesh frequency harmonics spaced at 1x rpm
How many mechanical vibration generators are present ? Two:

• 1x rpm
• 1x gear mesh
Of 12 identifiable peaks on this spectrum, 2 are actual mechanical vibrations.
The FFT has 'created' the other peaks due to the specific shapes of the signal
being processed. The FFT sees things that we cannot see except in its
detailed and precise mathematical analysis of the data. It also makes
judgements that may be faulty (creating peaks) due to lack of resolution and
data accuracy.
But in spite of that, what kind of action(s) might be performed if the
amplitudes of the peaks shown were considered unacceptable ?
• Balance (high 1x rpm peak)
• Alignment (harmonics of 1x rpm)
• Mechanical looseness (harmonics of 1x rpm)
• Gear eccentricity and settings (due to sidebands around gear mesh
harmonics)
• Gear wear and alignment (due to gear mesh harmonics)
These are only some of the most likely problems but you will most probably
find the problem during the course of this investigation. Also, consider that
we are assuming with our list here that it is not just one or two of the
amplitudes to be excessive but all of them. That is quite unlikely.
You are far more likely to be mislead by spectrums if you are ignorant
of the FFT process than if you have a proper understanding of it.
Where Time Domain Plots Can Be Invaluable
Obviously, time domain is a powerful tool. But what kinds of problems and
situations are better analyzed with the time domain plot ?
• Slow Beat Frequencies • Chipped / Broken Gear Teeth
• Impacts • Amplitude Modulation
• Transients • Frequency Modulation
• Rubs • Slow Speed Bearing Defects
Additionally, you can gather information related to the machine condition

such as:
• Misalignment • Eccentricity
• Looseness • Waveform Shape
• # of Teeth on a Gear • Instabilities
Let's see how the time domain can be of help with some of these.
Using Time Domain Plots To Find:
Beat Frequencies
A beat frequency occurs when two closely matched frequencies occur with
similar amplitudes. Figure 1 shows an uneventful spectrum with a resolution
of about 25 cpm per line.
Figure 1
But as we discussed in the 'Frequency' section, that spectrum resolution (25

cpm/line) will be insufficient to separate peaks less than about 50 - 60 cpm
apart - the FFT will combine those frequencies into a single peak. Figure 2
shows the signal from which Figure 1 was generated.
Beat Frequencies
Figure 2
We can see from Figure 2 that the beat is occurring over about 4000 msecs
(4 seconds) which means it is occurring 15 times per minute. With a beat
frequency such as this, chances are you would be able to hear and/or feel
the beat occurring. By timing it, you can find the 'beat' rate (15 beats per
minute). From the 'Frequency' section, we know that we need a spectrum
resolution of about 1/3 of that beat - 5 - 6 cpm/line of resolution - to be able
to separate the peaks on the FFT.
Impacts Created by Bearing Defects
An impact can occur due to a number of different problems - bearing defects
being #1 on the list (most common and most important). But because of
exactly how the FFT works, the impact frequency gets filtered out of the
displacement, velocity or acceleration spectra. Figure 1 shows a outer race
defect occurring on a bearing rotating about 1200 rpm.
Figure 1 - A Signal Showing An Impact Occurring
But why does the impact frequency get filtered out ? It is simply because
there is no sinusoid at the impact frequency (no sinusoid associated with the
rate at which the impacts are occurring). The only sinusoids present are:
• The 1x rpm sinusoid (we see 3+ cycles of that);
• The sinusoid associated with the ringdown occurring just after the impact
occurs (similar to a bell ringing down after being struck).
So how does the FFT process the signal shown ? The 1x rpm sinusoid is no
problem but how does it account for the periodic impacts occurring ?
Figure 1 - A Time Domain Signal Showing Bearing-Related Impacts

Approximately 3 Impacts Occur For Each Shaft Revolution
Even though there is no sinusoid associated with the impact frequency

(about 3 impacts per revolution of the shaft), note that there is a short-
duration sinusoid occurring immediately following the impact. In fact, it is
generated by the impact itself.
When you strike (impact) a bell, what happens ? It rings (down) until it
dampens out and stops ringing (or until it is struck again). This is also known
as "free" vibration. The same effect occurs when the bearing component is
struck. Notice in Figure 1 that for each impact, there are several high
frequency (closely spaced) peaks. That is the "ringdown" of the bearing
components and assembly after the impact has occurred. Just as the bell
rings at its resonant (natural) frequency, the bearing will ring down at its
resonant frequency. THAT will typically be found by the FFT process because
it is sinusoidal.
However, that ringdown sinusoid is not a continuously occurring frequency -

it is transient (it comes and goes). How does the FFT explain the spike
suddenly appearing, quickly ringing down and then disappearing until the
next spike (impact) occurs ?
What will show up on the spectrum is the 1x rpm peak and the harmonics of
the bearing defect frequency that occur closest to the ringdown frequency of
the bearing components. Those peaks will be at relatively high frequencies
since they are associated with the ringdown frequency of the bearing
components (and that is a high frequency). Figure 2 shows the FFT
generated from the signal shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2 - The Resulting FFT From The Signal In Figure 1
Notice the lack of any peak near the impact (defect) frequency (about 3.1 x
rpm).
The use of time domain for bearing defects is particularly useful for slow
speed equipment. A spectrum will often provide no warning or very late
warning of a defect developing.
You are far more likely to be mislead by spectrums if you are ignorant
of the FFT process than if you have a proper understanding of it.
Impacts Created by Gear Teeth
What is the result of a single broken, cracked or chipped gear tooth ? It is an
impact once per shaft revolution (1200 rpm). What does the FFT look like ?
Figure 1 shows the time domain:
Figure 1 - Shows Once Per Revolution Impact

Figure 2 shows the FFT generated from the signal seen in Figure 1.
Figure 2 - The Resulting FFT Plot
The spectrum shown goes out to about 22,000 and the number of teeth is
25. The amplitude at 30,000 cpm (GMF - which is not shown on the plot) is
increased on slightly under this circumstance. So what is the FFT symptom
you can expect with this problem ? The time plot shows a peak amplitude for
for the 1x rpm signal of perhaps 0.8 ips (20 mm/s). The FFT amplitude is
under 0.5 ips (12 mm/s). There may be a slight increase in GMF.
Just as impacts in a bearing excite the natural frequencies of the bearing
structure, there will almost certainly be some excitation of the gear train's
natural frequency due to the impacting. That is an important clue and typical
of excessive wear or impacting between gears but unfortunately you won't,
in all likelihood, know what that natural frequency is. Therefore . . .
The only effective way to detect this problem from its early stages is with
time domain analysis.
Rubs
What does a rub cause on the spectrum ? Well, it is quite unpredictable but
can, because of the wave shape, cause extensive harmonics, half-harmonics
(0.5, 1.5, 2.5, etc. x rpm) or even sub-harmonics. But what does the time
domain look like ?
Figure 1
Once the rotor contacts the side (begins the rub), it is prevented from
moving any further in that direction. It will rub until the forces present pull it
away from the contacted surface in the other direction. This is another
example of a problem where the diagnostic capabilities of the time plot far
exceed those of the spectrum. For instance, the length of the flat portion
(the rub) relative to the length of the entire cycle will tell you how much of
the rotation is rubbing. You should note that this condition would not be
apparent if the was mounted horizontally because the rub is strictly in the
vertical direction.
This is also known as a TRUNCATED wave shape and a rub is one of the
problems that would generate such a wave shape.
Truncated Wave Shapes
Since we've touched upon the truncated wave shape let's consider the wave
shape shown in Figure 1. What is happening ? A great deal of movement in
the positive going direction (amplitude reaches about 1.0) and not much in
the negative going direction (amplitude reaches about -0.2). Can you think
of any conditions that could lead to a signal shape like this ?
Figure 1 - A "Truncated" Signal Shape
In case you aren't quite sure yet, let's sum up what we can see from the
wave shape:
• The '+' peak amplitude = 1
• The '-' peak amplitude = - 0.2
• The wave is 'cut off' (truncated) on the bottom.
• There is a little bounce or bump at the bottom.
Let's take a look at the FFT generated by the signal in Fig. 1 in case you
would like that to help with your analysis:
Figure 2 - The FFT Generated From The Signal Shown In Figure 1
The FFT shows a peak at 1x rpm (about 1800 cpm) and 2x rpm (about 3600
cpm). There is nothing at higher frequencies.
Perhaps the animation on the next page will help.

Hindsight being 20/20, you can see that the time wave shape was telling you
how the bearing is moving. The fact that the bearing is moving a great deal
in one direction and not the other is a valuable piece of information on how
the bearing is moving if you put it to use in your mind. Figure 1 shows a
bearing moving in this manner.
Figure 1 - One Possible Cause Of The

Previous Page's Signal Shape
Ok, ok, the animation is a bit exaggerated. An unbalance force (the yellow
ball on the rotor you see flashing by) is present. If properly fastened in place,
this (centrifugal) force would be sufficient to move the bearing housing a
certain amount (far less than what you see). Since, however, the bearing is
not properly fastened in place, the force is able to move the bearing a great
deal further. The impact of the rotor dropping back onto its base causes a bit
of a bounce.
But the wave being shown in Figure 1 is actually very close in shape to that
in Figure 1 on the previous page - the sharper edges on the previous signal
shape are simply due to a loss of resolution (longer time sample, same
number of data bytes). Figure 2 (below) shows the signal from the previous
page in much greater detail - only a couple of cycles are being visible (better
resolution). The signal shape is virtually identical to the signal shape in the
animation.
Figure 2 - Small Segment Of Signal Seen On Previous Page;

Approx. 70msecs Versus 1200msecs On Previous Page
One of the key methods used in time domain analysis is to use the wave
shape to see (in your mind) how the bearing or structure is actually moving
and using that to think about what might be happening.
What You Need To Do To Be Able
To Analyze Time Domain Plots
It is extremely important to understand the limitations of the FFT and the
unpredictability of the FFT process when several problems are present
simultaneously. The time domain plot should be used whenever applicable or
in the presence of a stubborn or unusual problem. But there are three things
you must do to get comfortable with and good at analyzing time domain
plots.
Practice
PRACTICE
PRACTICE
Well, that's not entirely true - you also need to understand how to set them
up. We can't help you with the practice part but we can help you with the
setup.
What You Need To Do To Be Able
To Analyze Time Domain Plots
To set up a time domain reading can be a bit cumbersome. This is mainly
due to the fact that the setup is often done using FFT parameters such as
Fmax and lines of resolution. This section will first explain how a time domain
is set up and then provide some easy to use examples. The time domain
equivalent to Fmax and lines of resolution are:
• Fmax = Period (length of time sample being collected)
• Lines of Resolution = Bytes (how many pieces of data are collected to
create the sample)
o 512 Bits is equivalent to 200 lines of resolution
o 1024 bits is equivalent to 400 lines of resolution
As you may already know, a time domain plot is just as susceptible to

resolution limitations as an FFT is. Figures 1, 2 and 3 are each from the same
time domain plot - the latter two are zoomed in on.
Setting Up The Parameters For A
Time Domain Plots
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
The plot shown in Figure 1 - an actual, real-life time domain plot - was
collected with 2048 amplitude values (the time domain equivalent of "lines of
resolution"). The length of the time sample is 0.114 secs.
Figure 2 shows a portion of the same time domain plot with the sample
reduced to 0.04 seconds (by zooming in). This is done in the same manner
as one would zoom in a an FFT. It still looks pretty good but just as with a
spectrum, zooming in has done nothing to improve the accuracy of the data.
Once collected, you can never improve or in any way change the accuracy of
any plot - time domain or spectrum. The resolution is dictated by the
parameters set up and cannot be altered after the fact.
Time Domain Plots
Figure 3 shows the same plot with the sample reduced to only 0.01 seconds.
It is now quite clear that the time domain plot is generated by compiling a
series of amplitude values and connecting them with lines - the same way an
FFT is generated. This is JUST AS IMPORTANT and must be stressed just as
much as with the spectrum. Zooming in to this level does nothing to improve
the resolution and is about as helpful in viewing the big picture as looking at
a forest with your face 2 inches from a particular tree would be - in other
words, not helpful at all.
So how do we set up a time domain reading using FFT parameters from this
information ?
Time Domain Plots
The first thing we need to do is figure out how long (in seconds) our time
sample needs to be. How do we do that ? Well, it depends on what we are
trying to analyze. Let's take a machine rotating at 3600 rpm (60 Hz). How
many shaft rotations do you want to see in your time sample ? If you said 5 -
7 for a normal analysis, go to the head of the class. So we'll shoot for 6 shaft
rotations:
• 6 rotations / 60 rotations per second = 0.10 seconds
We now have our desired time sample - 0.1 seconds (100 msecs). We also
have a formula for future reference (for the sake of consistency, we'll call the
rotation an "event"):
• # of events desired / # of events per second = time sample desired
(seconds)
By using events, we can more easily apply the formula to anything from gear
mesh to bearing defects - not just shaft revolutions. Shaft revolutions will,
however, be the most common 'event'.
Time Domain Plots
At this point, there are two possibilities which will determine how you
proceed:
• Your analyzer or software requires a time sample length and the number of
data bits desired. If this is your option, you're about done. Simply choose
0.10 seconds (or 100 msecs) for the sample length or period and the
corresponding data bits for the number of amplitude values on the plot you
want (512 for 200 lines, 1024 for 400 lines, 2048 for 800 lines, 4096 for
1600 lines). It is recommended you collect either 2048 or 4096 bits of
data.
• Your analyzer or software forces you to set up the reading in FFT
parameters. In this case, you have a bit more math to do.
For option 2, choosing the number of lines of resolution we want is straight
forward - simply select the number you want. It is recommended that you
use 800 lines as the minimum and we will use that in our example. Once
you've decided on the desired resolution and you know the time sample you
want, use the following formula to find the Fmax you must select:
• Fmax = # Lines / Time Sample

• Fmax [Hertz] = 800 / 0.1 seconds = 8000 Hz
• Fmax [CPM] = 8,000 Hz x 60 = 480,000 cpm
Time Domain Plots
If you want 1600 lines with the same length time sample, you would use:
• Fmax = 1600 / 0.1 seconds = 16,000 Hz x 60 = 960,000 cpm
If you want 400 lines with the same length time sample, you would use:
• Fmax = 400 / 0.1 = 4,000 Hz x 60 = 240,000 cpm
Note that you can generate the Fmax in cpm directly by using the # lines x
60 and dividing it by the desired time sample:
• 800 lines x 60 / 0.1 seconds = 48,000 / 0.1 = 480,000 cpm
Also note that the shorter the time sample desired or greater the resolution,
the higher the Fmax selected.
Time Domain Plots
Let's run another example where we want to capture 10 bearing defect
impacts on a shaft running 1200 rpm. Well, first let's convert to Hz: 1200
cpm = 20 Hz. Next, we need to know the defect frequency. For the example,
we will use the very common outer race defect frequency found just over 3x
rpm. That means we will need approximately 3 shaft revolutions to capture
10 impacts. 20 shaft revolutions per second and we want 3 - that's 150
msecs (0.15 secs). We'll stick with our 800 lines and go straight to the cpm
answer:
• Fmax = 48,000 / 0.15 = 320,000 cpm
How about if we wanted to see 6 revolutions of a shaft turning at 60 rpm (1

Hz). Well, the fact that you want to see 6 revolutions on a shaft going 60
rpm should tell you that you want 1/10th of a minute - 6 seconds. Again,
we'll stick with 800 lines.
• Fmax = 48,000 / 6 = 8,000 cpm
The table shown below shows some time domain setup parameters. The
table values assume 800 lines of resolution (2048 data bits).
Time Domain Plots
By using 800 lines and the Fmax shown, you will obtain a time sample that
contains 5 - 10 revolutions of the shaft providing the machine is in the RPM
range shown. In other words, if you have a machine running 1500 rpm and
you want about 7 revolutions of the shaft on your time domain plot, find the
'RPM Range' below that contains 1500 (1314 - 1838) and use the Fmax
shown (180,000 cpm or 3kHz) and 800 lines.
RPM Range Fmax
1 – 20 1,500
20 – 39 3,000
40 - 79 6,000
80 - 131 12,000
132 - 184 18,000
185 - 236 24,000
237 – 289 30,000
290 - 368 36,000
369 - 473 48,000
474 - 656 60,000
Time Domain Plots
RPM Range Fmax

657 - 919 90,000
920 - 1313 120,000
1314 - 1838 180,000
1839 - 2363 240,000
2363 - 2888 300,000
2888 - 3413 360,000
3413 - 3938 420,000
3938 - 4725 480,000
4725 - 5775 600,000
5775 - 7875 720,000
5776 - 11288 1,080,000
11288 - 16000 1,500,000
Note that the Fmax's shown in the table above are based on 800 lines.
Time Domain Plots
• If you want to use 1600 lines (4096 bits), double the Fmaxs used for each
speed range.
• If you want to use 400 lines (1024 bits), cut in half the Fmaxs used for
each speed range.
• If you are looking for an event occurring more than once per revolution
(e.g. bearing defects), use the next highest frequency range listed.
• If you are looking for a "beat" frequency, use the Fmax listed next to the
beat frequency rate (a very low Fmax) - not the shaft rpm.
Time Domain Plots:
Summary
Time domain analysis is a powerful but intimidating tool. Hopefully, this
section of the manual has helped you understand some of the secrets of the
time domain as well as some of the secrets of the FFT process. Again, there
are specific areas where we recommend using time domain analysis without
exception:
• Slow Speed Equipment (< 300 rpm)
• Sleeve Bearings (particularly if readings reflect true shaft movement)
• Gear Applications
However, there are many people who would argue that time domain is a
valuable tool on all applications and we cannot argue with them - the wave
shape can provide information that you will not get from an FFT. If you are
comfortable with it and have the time to collect it, by all means - it is
another way to look at how your machines are behaving.
We also cannot argue with the people who claim:

• Time Domain is complicated
• Time Domain is difficult to interpret
• Often you can't make head nor tail of a time domain plot
Time Domain Plots:
Summary
Each of these is also true. So . . . . the sooner you start using it and getting
comfortable with it, the sooner you'll become proficient at using this powerful
tool. Remember the three things you need:
• PRACTICE
• PRACTICE
• PRACTICE
Plots:
The Enveloping Spectra
• What Is An "Enveloping" Spectra Plot ?
• How Are They Processed Differently ?
• Bearing Defect Multipliers
• How Does "Impact Energy" Generated ?
• How Does Impact Energy Affect The FFT ?
• What Information Does The Enveloping Spectra Provide ?
• What Are Some "Impact Sources" Besides Bearing Defects ?
• Words Of Warning
What Is An "Enveloping Spectra" Plot ?
Y-Axis Data:
Amplitude
X-Axis Units:
• The term "enveloping" spectra plot is not always a technically correct

description of the signal processing involved but will be the term we use for
simplicity sake.
• An enveloping spectra is the same in appearance (amplitude vs. frequency)
as a conventional spectrum - it simply displays different information.
• An enveloping spectra is not sensitive to sinusoidal motion - unlike the FFT
plot that determines what simple sinusoids combined to generate a
complex signal in displacement, velocity or acclereration units.
How Are Enveloping Spectra Plots Processed ?
• The unit of amplitude measurement is acceleration but the signal is
processed differently than a conventional acceleration signal is.
• The names for the amplitude unit are manufacturer specific - they each
have their own name and/or acronym for the unit. A few of the
manufacturers are:
o CSI (Emerson) uses Peakvue
o Entek (Rockwell Automation) uses gSE (spike energy - the original IRD
acronym)
o SKF uses HFD (high frequency domain) and ESP (envelope signal
processing - originally a DI unit)

• Filters are used to help process the signal and focus on any impacts that
may be occurring.
• The filters come in two classes:
o Envelope filter - this type of filter sets a frequency 'envelope' that
includes a high frequency (Fmax) and a low frequency (Fmin). Any

vibration occurring outside that range is filtered out.
o Hi-Pass filter - this type of filter eliminates the Fmax but still sets an
Fmin filter below which all vibration influences are filtered out.
o Each manufacturer sets up its own signal processing and filters.
Therefore, although they each provide similar information, they are not
directly comparable in the amplitude realm.
How Are Enveloping Spectra Plots Processed ?
• The signal processing focuses on the transient, impact type events (spikes
on the time domain signal) that the FFT process "misses" (it would be more
accurate to say "makes more difficult to find") due to the way it processes
the time signal.
• If there is a consistent period between impacts (i.e. the impacts are
occurring at a regular interval), that period will be converted into the
desired frequency units (Hz or cpm).
• The intensity of the impacts will also be assessed. This is related to the size
of the impact spike on the signal versus any background noise occurring.
• The results are displayed on a spectrum with amplitude peaks at the
frequency(s) they are occurring at.
The enveloping spectrum provides us with valuable information unavailable

on displacement, velocity and acceleration spectra. It provides another useful
weapon for the analyst.
Enveloping Spectra Plots:
Bearing Defect Multipliers
To understand the envelope plot's importance in
diagnosing bearing defects, you need to understand
how bearing defect frequencies work. To understand
bearing frequencies, we begin with bearing
"multipliers". A bearing defect multipliers is based
on the geometry of the bearing. The important
geometric characteristics include the pitch diameter,
the number of rolling elements, the rolling element
diameter and, for ball bearings, the contact angle.
There is a multiplier for each of the four bearing
components you see here. The purpose of each Figure 1 - A Typical Ball Bearing
multipler is to tell you how many impacts (spikes on
the time domain plot) will occur for each shaft
rotation for a defect on any of the four different
bearing components. These components are:
• Cage or Train (black)
• Balls or Rollers (dark gray)
• Outer Race (light gray outside)
• Inner Race (light gray inside)
For example, consider the defect shown the outer
race of a bearing in Figure 2. For each revolution
of the shaft (inner race), a certain number of balls
or rollers will pass that spot (the defect) on the
outer race and strike (impact) the defect. The
number of impacts per shaft revolution is the
Figure 2 - Outer Race Defect Being
"outer race defect multiplier" for that bearing. Impacted As Each Ball Passes
It is important to note that a bearing defect multiplier is never a exact

multiple of running speed (it is never synchronous). Rolling element bearings
always generate non-synchronous vibration frequency.
Since these multipliers are based on the geometry of each individual bearing,
you can obtain specific numbers for any bearing from numerous sources
(vendors, manufacturers, etc.). To turn a multiplier into a frequency requires
applying the multiplier to the speed of the machine in question. If your
multiplier is 3.05 and the machine runs at 1000 rpm, the defect frequency is
3050 cpm. That means there are 3050 impacts occurring each minute due to
the presence of that defect.
What are the ranges of these bearing defect multipliers ?
0.30 - 0.45 x RPM FTF [Fund. Train Freq.]

1.5 - 4.5 x RPM BSF [Ball Spin Freq.]
3 - 9 x RPM 2xBSF [2x Ball Spin Freq]
2.5 - 9 x RPM BPFO [Ball Pass Frequency Outer]
4 - 13 x RPM BPFI [Ball Pass Frequency Inner]
These are typical ranges you will find on common bearings. Some bearings
may have considerably higher defect frequencies - the determining factor is
primarily the number of rolling elements (which is related to the load rating
of the bearing). The higher the load rating of the bearing, the more rolling
elements there are and the higher these multipliers can be. The inner race
multiplier, for instance, can be well over 20 but that is unusual.
There are some important facts about these defect multipliers that the
analyst should always keep in mind:
• They are based on proper installation (i.e. proper fit) and proper
lubrication. Certain conditions can alter these multipliers and in some cases
actually increase them.
• They can be very close to exact harmonics of running speed - 3.05 x RPM,
for instance. That means if the machine runs at 1780 rpm, the defect
frequency is 5429 while 3x rpm is 5360 cpm - only 69 cpm difference.
These could be easily confused and misdiagnosed.
• It is extremely important to understand that no matter how close they are
to exact running speed harmonics, bearing defect frequencies CAN NEVER
BE exact running speed harmonics. They are always non-synchronous
vibration sources - a fact vital to their correct diagnosis.
How Does "Impact Energy" Occur ?
Let's examine how impact energy due to a typical bearing defect occurs:
Figure 1 Figure 2
In Figure 1, as each rolling element passes the defect, an impact occurs. As

we began discussing in the Time Domain section, if you strike a bell, the bell
will vibrate at its natural frequency. That is true of any structure. The time it
vibrates will be determined by the force of the impact, the mass, the
damping characteristics of the object and other variables. This is called "free"
vibration (as opposed to the "forced" vibration caused by energizing a
machine and keeping it rotating and, consequently, vibrating). The bearing
impact causes the bearing assembly to "ring" briefly until the free vibration
due to the impact dampens out. There are two frequencies occurring here
that are specifically related to the bearing defect:
1) The bearing assembly natural, or "resonant", frequency (based on the
period of the bearing assembly resonance).
• Since the impact causes the bearing structure to ring, there is a sinusoid
generated briefly related to the bearing assembly's resonant frequency.
• Because there is a sinusoid generated, this frequency is detected by the
FFT process and amplitude peaks will be generated initially on the
acceleration spectra (since it is more sensitive to high frequency vibration)
and eventually the velocity spectra (displacement units are useless at
those frequencies).
• The difficulty lies in the fact that the FFT will have to mathematically
account for the fact that the spike suddenly appears, briefly rings down
and then is gone until the next impact occurs. It is not a constant sinusoid,
it is transient.
2) The "impact" frequency (based on the period between impacts).
• The impact frequency itself has no sinusoidal motion associated with it. In
other words, there is no sine wave that connects the start of one impact to
the start of the next impact - they are individual 'events' that occur.
• These impacts (spikes) are specifically what the enveloping signal
processing looks for and measures.
• It will calculate the intensity of the impact (the size of the spike) and the
frequency (based on the period between impacts) while filtering out any
sinusoidal motion it finds.
How Does Impact Energy Affect The FFT ?
Let's review how the FFT process works by examining the following computer
generated signal:
Figure 1 - Shows Approximately 9 Shaft Rotations (470 msecs)
The conventional FFT process focuses on sinusoids - namely, mathematically

calculating what series of simple sinusoids (signals) were combined to
generate the signal we see here. What can we see from the above plot ?
• A low frequency sinusoid that shows about 9 cycles across Fig. 1. That is
the 1x rpm signal.
• Some frequency modulation of that signal (compare the positive going side
of the wave to the negative going side of the wave).
• A large number of spikes, or impacts, that occur across the plot and appear
to vary somewhat in intensity (the size of the spike).
Figure 1 is a typical example of a plot that an analyst might collect - 9
rotations of a shaft. But although the 1x sinusoid is fairly clear, the impacts
are not. Let's zoom in a bit.
Figure 2 - Shows Approximately 2 Shaft Rotations (115 msecs)
Cutting the displayed sample to just over 115 msecs (about 2 shaft
rotations), we can now clearly see:
• The frequency modulation of the 1x rpm signal.

• The ringdown frequency of the impacts.
• If we simply count the number of impacts in one cycle (from 30 - 80
msecs, for instance), we would find about 4-5 per shaft revolution (or "x
RPM").
It should be clear to us as analysts that this is an impact occurring and
investigation of the period involved (time between impacts) should lead us to
a diagnosis. But more often than not, the analyst will not be using the time
domain - they will be using FFT analysis. What does an FFT performed on this
signal generate ?
Figure 3 - FFT Generated From Signal In Figure 1
• 1x, 2x and 3x rpm peaks. These are probably due to the frequency
modulation present.
• A series of peaks at high frequencies that are spaced about 5400 cpm
apart.
• The absence of a peak at or near 5x rpm - the impact frequency. This is
because there is no sinusoidal motion associated with the frequency of the
impacts - only the ringdown frequency that results from the impacts.
But where do the peaks between 31,000 and 65,000 cpm come from ? How
does the FFT process come to "see" them ?
The answer lies in the mathematics involved in the FFT process. Let's look
again at a time domain plot that is representative of what a bearing defect
will look like:
Figure 1 - A Time Domain Plot With Bearing Related Impacts Occurring
The time domain in Figure 1 is clearly symptomatic of a bearing defect -

impacts at a frequency not related to rpm (the larger sine wave). The time
sample is 333 msecs.
But let's look at the FFT. What does the preceeding signal generate when
subjected to the FFT process ?
Figure 2 - The FFT Resulting From The Signal Shown In Figure 1
The FFT in Figure 2 shows series of peaks out in the 50k - 90k range. These
peaks are the "symptom" of a bearing defect developing. But why ? Why
does the FFT generate vibration at those frequencies ?
The answer is in the math. There is only one series of simple sinusoids that
would result in the shape of the signal shown above. Want more proof ?
The answer is in the math. There is only one series of simple sinusoids that
would result in the shape of the signal shown above. Want more proof ?
Figure 3 (below) is a 30 msec slice of Figure 1 - a close-up, so to speak:
Figure 3
Figure 4 shows the entire series of simple sinusoids that were programmed in
to create the exact signal shape you see in Figures 1 and 3.
Figure 4
When the signal shown in Figure 1 is put through the FFT process, that
process is asked "what simple sinusoids create that exact periodic signal".
• The process "sees" the series of sine waves shown in Figure 4 as the
mathematical solution to the question.
• Note the varying amplitude values of the sinusoids in Figure 4.
• Note the three instants (65-66 msecs, 76-77 msecs and 87-88 msecs) all
of the high frequency signals are in phase (adding together).
• Note the high number of out-of-phase sinusoids at 71 msecs and 82
msecs.
There is only 1 combination of simple sinusoids that will combine to
mathematically create any periodic signal. Alter the signal in any way and
the series of sinewaves creating that signal will change.
This analysis does not, of course, include the larger '1x rpm' and '2x rpm'
sine waves you can see. Those are 'seen' by the FFT due to the frequency
modulation on the 1x rpm signal (Fig 1).
Since this is such a complex subject, let's go through the details in a different
way.
The answer has to do with the transient nature of the impacts and the
principles involved in the FFT process. Looking at the question from the FFT's
perspective, we can re-phrase it as:
• What would cause a sinusoid to appear and then disappear at regular
intervals ?
Since the FFT is based on the principle that any periodic signal can be broken
down into a series of simple sinusoids, there must be some combination of
sinusoids that would produce a sudden spike followed by a subsequent
"ringdown" (high) frequency followd by nothing until the next spike occurs.
The answer is actually fairly simple. When a series of sinusoids separated by
a common frequency (5400 in this case) are combined to generate a periodic
signal, the signal will appear as a transient sinusoid (a spike, or impact,
followed by a ringdown followed by nothing until another spike suddenly
appears).
The following list of simple sinusoids were fed into a signal generating
software program. Note that although the amplitudes are different, the
frequencies are all separated by 5,400 cpm. Although there were other
variables inputted to create a more realistic looking signal, this list is, in fact,
the exact series of sinusoids that were combined to create the transient
(impact) sinusoid you saw on the previous page.
• 0.05 @ 31,800 cpm
• 0.16 @ 37,200 cpm
• 0.28 @ 42,600 cpm
• 0.30 @ 48,000 cpm
• 0.18 @ 53,400 cpm
• 0.10 @ 58,800 cpm
• 0.06 @ 64,200 cpm
What would the signal look like if we only used the above 7 signals (plus
some background noise and amplitude modulations) ? See for yourself:
Figure 1
• The result is only impacts and background noise.
• What is happening is that this combination of signals will all come into
phase with one another at about the same time, rings down to the noise
level in about 4 msecs as the signals go out-of-phase with one another and
remains at background noise level for another 6-7 msecs.
• The result is a large, brief amplitude increase (a spike, or impact) every 11
msecs or so. That equals an impact frequency of 5,400 cpm (the difference
between the frequencies
Of course, the FFT does not have the benefit of knowing which sinusoids
went into generating this signal. In fact, that is exactly it's job - to calculate
those simple sinusoids from the complex signal (including other influences
like 1x rpm, other mechanical vibrations, amp and freq modulation, etc.). So
the process is:
• The above signal is fed into the FFT process. That process then calculates
what simple sinusoids combined to generate the signal.
• The FFT can deduce that there is a combination of sines and cosines
(signals) that will result in the above complex signal - the combination
listed.
• Adding or removing any signals that are a multiple of 5,400 will alter the
appearance by making the impact either sharper (more signals) or less well
defined (less signals).
• In fact, there is only one solution to each signal - only one set of simple
sinusoids.
• So when the FFT process is presented with the above signal, what does the
spectrum look like ?
• 0.05 @ 31,800 cpm

• 0.16 @ 37,200 cpm
• 0.28 @ 42,600 cpm
• 0.30 @ 48,000 cpm
• 0.18 @ 53,400 cpm
• 0.10 @ 58,800 cpm
• 0.06 @ 64,200 cpm
Above: The Signals Used To
Figure 2 - FFT Generated From Signal Shown In Figure 1 Generate The FFT Shown Here
• Note that there is no indication whatsoever of the impact frequency (about

5400 cpm) on the spectrum.
• Why is there no peak at the impact frequency ? Because there is no
sinusoid associated with it !
There are several problems complicating the analysis of a velocity or
acceleration FFT such as the one shown in Figure 2.
• You must notice the existence of the peaks (separated by the defect
frequency). This may seem silly but keep in mind that:
o You may be analyzing dozens or hundreds of machines - thousands of
bearings.
o The high frequency peaks you see in Figure 2 will initially be low
amplitude - particularly if you are using a velocity spectrum (which

most people use).
• The analyst relies on these peaks being harmonics of the bearing defect
frequency. You must be able establish that pattern.
• Before you even try to determine the defect frequency (which often
requires time and effort), you must somehow notice or sense that there is
a harmonic or sideband pattern that should be investigated.
• Eventually, You must know the defect frequency (the impact frequency).
The peaks you see in the 33k-63k range are harmonics of the defect
frequency (6x - 12x defect frequency). That is how you will diagnose the
problem - by identifying the source of those peaks through the use of
harmonics. Without knowledge of the defect frequency, it can be far more
difficult.
So now, let's return to the subject at hand. What will the enveloping
spectrum look like and how will it help with the analysis ?
What Information Do They Provide ?
Figure 1 shows an actual enveloping spectrum collected on a bearing with a
defect:
Figure 1 - Enveloping Spectrum
The bearing defect frequency identified is just over 3x RPM. Notice that there
are no significant peaks at 1x, 2x or 3x rpm on Figure 1 (there were on the
velocity spectrum). There are, however, extremely significant peaks at 1x,
2x and 3x the impact frequency - in this case a bearing defect frequency
(there are other impact sources). The enveloping signal provides the
following:
The impact frequency:
• This piece of information can be used on the velocity or acceleration
spectrum to help determine the condition of the bearing (how bad is it ?).
• After identifying the defect frequency from Figure 1, inspect your velocity
or acceleration plot and place your cursor on that same impact frequency
and turn on your harmonics.
• If you are able to relate, through the harmonics, the high frequency peaks
to this impact frequency, you have confirmed the presence of a bearing
defect.
• You can then make an assessment of condition based on the amplitudes
present, noise level, etc.
The intensity of the impacts:
• This piece of information can be used to
help determine how quickly a bearing can
be expected to deteriorate since the
impacts are so destructive.
• You can compare this to hitting a small
pothole in your car or hitting a huge, sharp
edged pothole - the first is annoying, the
second can destroy your wheel. Figure 2 - Enveloping Spectrum From
Figure 1 on dB Scale
• The assessment can be made by displaying the amplitudes on a 'dB' scale
(see Figure 2) and comparing the peak amplitude to the surrounding
'carpet' level (which is affected by lubrication and load, among other
things).
• In Fig. 2 (which is the same plot as Figure 1 except the amplitudes were on
a linear scale in Fig. 1 and are on a dB scale in Fig. 2), the amplitude on
the peak is about 125 dB.
• The surrounding carpet level, which is an estimate of the surrounding
amplitudes, is in the 100 - 102 dB range. The following guidelines can be
used:
o Difference of 12-18 dB is a significant level of impacting and should be

watched closely.
o Difference of > 18 dB is a severe level - intense impact energy, very
destructive.
Impact Sources
What are the common impact sources that the enveloping signal and
spectrum are helpful in detecting and what are the frequencies associated
with each. Each of the subjects listed below is discussed more in-depth in the
'Troubleshooting Charts' section.
• Bearing Defects - Frequency of peaks will be the specific bearing defect
(impact) frequency.
• Looseness - Typically occurring between the shaft and bearing; the housing
and bearing; and/or the internal bearing clearances. The observed
frequency on the enveloping spectrum will be harmonics of running speed
(1x, 2x, 3x, etc. x RPM).
• Electrical Looseness (ac motors) - Looseness in windings, end turns, loose
iron, loose connections, etc. Frequency will be 2x AC line frequency and
harmonics. This also applies to Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) but the
ac frequency must be determined for each case.
• Lubrication - Lack of lubrication will drive up metal to metal contact (high
frequency noise). No specific frequencies are triggered but a general lifting
of floor, or 'carpet' level, will occur.
Impact Sources
• Reciprocating Equipment - Analyst must determine the specifics of the
machine to determine what frequencies to expect. Running speed
harmonics are common with even numbered harmonics of even higher
amplitude (there are a lot of events at 2x rpm in typical recips), number of
pistons x rpm in some hydraulic pumps. Impacts are normal in equipment
such as this and the analyst should be looking for change from the norm.
• Gears - Backlash, other impact sources. Frequencies typically will be
related to the number of teeth.
Note that each of these 'problems' generates its own, specific frequency(s).
Each of these subjects is covered more extensively in the 'Troubleshooting
Charts' section but there is one common thread to using the enveloping
spectrum (a word of warning, so to speak):
Words of Warning
• The enveloping spectrum is extremely sensitive. It will pick up impact
energy that is not necessarily a problem or is a very early stage problem.
• For instance, it can detect bearing defects before they have migrated to
the surface of the bearing. Pulling the bearing at that point will not reveal a
defect and may cost you something more valuable than money -
credibility.
• Enveloping spectra should be used in conjunction with other analysis tools
(velocity and acceleration spectra, thermography, time domain, your
experience, etc.) before performing any corrective actions. It is a powerful
tool but must be used with care.
• Like other aspects of vibration analysis, experience will help greatly as it is
acquired.
Spectrum Interpretation
The following pages are designed to provide typical examples of the vibration
spectrums that will result from different problems a machine might
experience. They are probability based and field testing should always be
performed regardless of how "sure" you are of the diagnosis. Remember:
• EVERY diagnosis made from an FFT interpretation (i.e. sitting, staring at a
computer screen of data) can be characterized as:
An ASSUMPTION based on an ESTIMATE
Click on the plot below that best approximates what you are seeing. You can also browse
through one page at a time by clicking on the <Next> button at the top or bottom of each page.
Cocked Bearings and

Unbalance Misalignment
Shafts Bent @ Bearing
Housing Distortion:
Structural Looseness Bearing Looseness
Soft Foot, Piping Stress, etc.
Structural Resonance Critical Speeds
Belt Problems: Belt Problems: Belt Problems:

Wear, Resonance, etc. Pulley Alignment Eccentric Pulley / Bent Shaft
Sleeve Bearings Oil Whirl

(Looseness/Rubs)
Rolling Element Bearings Hydraulic / Aerodynamic Pump Cavitation /

Flow Turbulence
AC Motor Problems: AC Motor Problems: AC Motor Problems:

Broken / Cracked Rotor Bars Uneven Air Gap Loose Rotor Bars / Windings
DC Motor Problems: DC Motor Problems:

Drive Problems Speed Fluctuations
Gear Problems: Gear Problems:

Misalignment Wear, Eccentricity, Backlash
Unbalance
Unbalance - Usually the simplest problem to diagnose (and one of the most
common). Unbalance is a centrifugal force. Consider the following about a 3
foot (0.91 meter) diameter fan rotating at 2000 rpm:
• Circumference = 3 x 3.14 = 9.42 feet (2.87m).

• 2000 rpm = 120,000 rev/hour (rph)
• 120,000 rph x 9.42 ft/rev = 1,130,400 ft/hour (344,546 m/hour)
• 1,130,400 ft/hr / 5280 ft/mile = 214.1 mph OR 344.6 km/hr
An unbalance mass (whatever that mass is) at the rim of the fan is travelling
close to the top speed of an Indy race car. In addition to that, remember
that:
• Force = Mass x Velocity squared

Single Plane Unbalance
Figure 1 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Unbalance Figure 2 - Single Plane

Unbalance
In the absence of other problems, unbalance causes a pure sinusoid (one of

the only problems that does not distort the signal shape in some manner)
and therefore generates a peak at 1x rpm.
Single-Plane Unbalance Symptoms:
• Radial vibration @ 1x rpm.
• Phase around bearing shifts with transducer shift - 90° transducer shift
causes 90° phase shift.
• Little or no phase shift across or "between" bearings [bearings vibrating
"in-phase"]
Two-Plane Unbalance
Figure 1 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Unbalance Figure 2 - Two-Plane

Unbalance
Two-Plane Unbalance Symptoms:

• Phase around bearing shifts with transducer shift - 90° transducer shift
causes 90° phase shift.
• Significant phase shift (> 60°) across or "between" bearings [bearings
vibrating "out-of-phase"]
Overhung Rotor Unbalance
Figure 1 - Typical Axial FFT Generated By Unbalance

Figure 2 - Overhung
Rotor Unbalance
Figure 1 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Unbalance
Overhung Rotor Unbalance Symptoms:

• Axial vibration @ 1x rpm.
• Phase around bearing shifts with transducer shift - 90° transducer shift causes 90°
phase shift.
• Axial phase readings usually in-phase.
• Radial phase readings may be out-of-phase.
• Balancing may require use of axial phase readings.
Direct Drive Misalignment
Figure 2 - Pure Angular Figure 3 - Pure Offset

Figure 1 - Perfect Alignment
Misalignment Misalignment
Misalignment - The most common vibration problem. Unlike unbalance, does

not have a single vibration symptom. As a result, it should always be
considered as a possibility.
• Definition of Perfect alignment - Shaft centerlines are parallel and intersect.
Types of misalignment:
• Angular - Shaft centerlines intersect but are not parallel
• Offset - Shaft centerlines are parallel but do not intersect.
It is extremely unlikely that you will encounter a case of either pure angular
or pure offset misalignment - it will always be a combination. That results in
the wide variety of vibration symptoms.
Angular Misalignment
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Generated By Angular Misalignment Figure 2 - Shaft Centerlines Intersect @ The
Definition: Shaft Centerlines Intersect But Are Not Parallel Coupling. Note The Absence Of Coupling
Movement And The High Radial & Axial
Bearing Movement.
Angular Misalignment Symptoms:

• High axial vibration @ 1x rpm, possible
harmonics at 2x & 3x.
• 2x rpm axial component may be as high or
even higher than 1x component.
• Radial vibration, probably lower amplitude than
the axial, at 1x, 2x and 3x.
Figure 3 - Shaft Centerlines Intersect @ The
• Radial vibration will depend on where the shaft Bearings. Note The High Radial Coupling
centerlines intersect the assembly centerline. Movement, The Low Radial & The High Axial
Bearing Movement.
• Axial phase across coupling shifts significantly
(> 60°).
Offset Misalignment
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Generated By Offset Misalignment Figure 2 - Shaft Centerlines Do Not
Definition: Shaft Centerlines Are Parallel But Do Not Intersect Intersect. Note The High Radial & Axial
Bearing Movement.
Offset Misalignment Symptoms:

• High radiual vibration @ 1x rpm, harmonics at
2x & 3x.
• 2x rpm axial component may be as high or
even higher than 1x component.
• Axial vibration, probably lower amplitude than
the axial, at 1x, 2x and 3x.
Figure 3 - Shaft Centerlines Do Not
• Radial phase across coupling shifts significantly Intersect. Note The Even Higher Radial &
(> 60°). Axial Bearing Movement.
• Axial phase across coupling shifts significantly

(> 60°).
Cocked Bearing / Shaft Bent Through Bearing
Cocked Bearing / Shaft Bent Through Bearing - Creates similar or even
identical vibration symptoms (with the exception of phase) to misalignment -
primarily angular misalignment (axial vibration). Must be diagnosed with
axial phase analysis or inspected for.
Cocked Bearing
Figure 2 - Cocked Bearing
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Generated By Cocked Bearing
Cocked Bearing Symptoms:

• Vibration symptoms very similar to direct drive
angular misalignment.
• High axial vibration @ 1x rpm, harmonics at 2x
& 3x. 8:00 Transducer 11:00 Transducer
• 2x rpm radial component often as high or Note The Phase Shift Occurring When
The Transducer Is Shifted. This Is Due
higher than 1x component. To The Twisting Action Of The Bearing
• Axial phase shift around the face of the bearing
equal to change in transducer location.
Bent Shaft @ Bearing
Figure 2 - Note The Axial,

Twisting Action Of The
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Generated By Shaft Bent Through The Bearing
Bearing
Shaft Bent Through Bearing Symptoms:

• Vibration symptoms very similar to direct drive angular
misalignment.
• High axial vibration @ 1x & 2x rpm.
• 2x rpm radial component often as high or higher than 1x
Figure 3 - Note The Axial,
component. Twisting Action Of The
• Axial phase shift around the face of the bearing equal to Bearing
change in transducer location (twisting action).

• Radial phase shifts significantly on either side of bearing
(> 60°). This can best be seen in Figure 2 below. When
the shaft just to the right of the bearing is moving up, the
shaft just to the left of the bearing is moving down and
vice versa. This measurement, of course, requires a direct
shaft reading with an attachment such as a shaft stick.
Looseness
Looseness - Not a vibration source but an amplifier. That means that when a
component is loose, whatever forces are present will be able to move the
affected components much more easily. If there are little or no forces
present, however, vibration may only increase a very small amount. To
understand this, imagine a perfect machine - no mechnical imperfections to
cause any vibration. Now loosen the bolts holding down the feet and . . .
nothing happens because there are no forces attempting to lift it off of its
base.
Looseness can occur at a number of locations that affect the vibration
measurements. They are:
• Bearing / Shaft (Bearing Looseness)
• Bearing / Housing (Bearing Looseness)
• Internal bearing clearances (Bearing Looseness)
• Adjacent, fastened surfaces (Structural)
• Areas of the base (Structural)
Each, however, gives different likely symptoms.
Structural Looseness
Figure 1 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Mechanical (Structural) Figure 2 - Looseness Allows
Looseness Movement In
The Direction Of The Looseness
Structural Looseness Symptoms: • Animation simulates a loose motor

foot moving vertically under a
slow motion study.
• High radial vibration @ 1x, 2x rpm (often • Note how vertical amplitudes in
higher at 2x) and possibly 3x (lower). this case are far higher than
horizontal amplitudes would be.
• Amplitude may be extremely high in • Foot lifts and drops once per shaft
direction of looseness only (vertical or revolution.
• 2x rpm component may appear
horizontal) - far higher than in the due to the bounce (shape of the
perpendicular radial direction. time domain plot - see time
domain section for more
• Found easily with background vibration information on that).
checks of adjacent surfaces. • Additional harmonics can be
created due to the shape of the
• Slow Motion Study can be a very useful tool time domain signal. As it changes
in diagnosing this condition. from a sinusoid towards a square
wave, more harmonics appear.
Bearing Looseness
Figure 2 - Bearing
Looseness Generates
Figure 1 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Bearing Looseness More Of A "Square"
Wave Than A Sinusoid.
That Shape Creates
Harmonics
Structural Looseness Symptoms:
• High radial vibration harmonics of 1x.
• Harmonics can stretch all the way across the spectrum in cases of severe
looseness and can even generate half-harmonics in extreme cases (1.5,
2.5, 3.5, etc.).
Housing Distortion (Soft Foot, Pipe Stress, etc.)
Figure 1 - Typical Axial FFT Generated By Housing Distortion

Figure 3 - Soft Foot Or
Other Housing Distortion
Such As Pipe Stress Can
Cause Bearings Within A
Component To Misalign And
Can Throw Off Normal
Clearances.
Figure 2 - Typical Radial FFT Generated By Housing Distortion
Housing Distortion Symptoms:

• High axial vibration @ 1x & possibly 2x rpm.
• Axial phase analysis may show phase shift across bearings within component.
• Axial phase analysis may show twisting bearing (like cocked bearing).
• 2x Line frequency on motors due to air gap variation, especially radially.
• Pumps / fans may develop clearance problems (vane or blade pass).
• High axial vibration on non-direct drive components (belt drives, integral fans, etc.).
• Pipe stress can develop similar symptoms on pumps, compressors & fans/blowers.
Resonance
Resonance is simply the natural frequency of a component or combination of
components (assembly). All structures have a resonant frequency. If you
impact the structure with enough force to make it move, it will vibrate briefly
at its natural frequency. A structure will have a resonant frequency in each of
its 3 directional planes (x, y and z, or as we call them, horizontal, vertical
and axial). Resonance serves to amplify the vibration due to whatever
vibration force is present at (or near) that resonant frequency. It is important
to note that resonance does not cause vibration - it amplifies it.
Resonance problems occur in two primary forms. They are:
Critical speeds - occurs when a component rotates at its own natural
frequency.
• A "critical speed" is simply when the rotational speed (rpm) coincides with
the natural frequency of the rotor (cpm).
• The tiniest amount of residual unbalance (something that is always
present) is enough to cause huge amounts of vibration when rotating at a
critical.
• Rotors that are sped up or slowed down slowly are susceptible to this (i.e.
turbines). In these cases, the critical speed is usually well known.
Resonance
• The most common problem related to unknown critical speeds is probably
belts. Belts rotating at their resonant frequency (or having a nearby source
of excitation of that resonant frequency) can vibrate excessively and cause
other problems. For example, if the natural frequency of the belts coincides
with the rpm of the fan, the belts will vibrate at their natural frequency.
• 2nd and 3rd criticals also may occur if the rotor speed gets high enough.
Structural resonances - This is far more common than a critical speed
problem. It becomes a problem when some forcing frequency comes close
(+/- 10%) to the resonant (natural) frequency of a structure.
• The structure can be the machine housing itself or some nearby structure
such as a hand rail or I-beam.
• A common example of this is a vertical pump. Due to the lack of a support
at the top of the unit, these typically have very low resonant frequencies
(~ 300 cpm). While running, this is not a problem but during start-up or
coast-down, the unit experiences a "shudder" as it passes through the
structural resonance (this is not a critical speed - it is a structural resonant
frequency).
• The structure itself will vibrate excessively - do not confuse with a critical
speed.
• The "shape" of the structure's vibration is an important clue and is known
as a "mode shape".
• Testing for the structure's natural frequency is crucial (required) to
confirming a resonance problem.
Resonance
Resonance, once diagnosed, can be simple to correct. It can also be
extremely complex and difficult
to correct. The trick is in the diagnosis. But how do you diagnose it ?
One method for determining a critical speed is a "Coast Down/Start Up Plot".
This plot consists of the 1x vibration amplitude being collected
simultaneously with a 1x rpm phase reading as the machine coasts to a stop
or goes from stopped to full running speed. This test requires a 1x rpm
reference (from a photoeye or some other speed tracking signal) in order to
track the amplitude and phase at that frequency. Two things are observed as
the rotor passes through a critical:
• The 1x rpm amplitude will increase until the rotor reaches it's critical and
then decrease to the normal level as the speed continues to change.
• Phase will shift 180° as the rotor passes through the critical. This is due to
the rotor changing from a rigid rotor (while operating below it's critical) to
a flexible rotor (while operating above it's critical). It practical terms, on a
rigid rotor, the heavy spot pulls the rotor around as it rotates. On a flexible
rotor, the heavy spot pushes the rotor around as it rotates.
Resonance
Structural resonances can be first suspected by several characteristics:
• Disproportionately high amplitude at a single frequency (the resonant
frequency) in the direction in which the resonant frequency is being
excited.
• A "mode shape" analysis shows the structure vibrating in a way that
models resonance. Those models are covered on the next page.
Neither of those characteristics confirms resonance as a problem. A test must
be performed that actually determines the natural frequency of the structure
in question - a "bump test". Although there are high-tech methods available
for this test (and some work very well), this test can be as simple as
bumping the structure (causing it to vibrate) while it is not running and
measuring the response (i.e. the frequency it vibrates at). A simple method
for doing this involves collecting a 2 second sample (time domain plot) while
bumping the structure, measuring the period of one cycle and converting it
to a frequency. The time sample may have to be adjusted depending on the
resonant frequency being measured (longer sample for very low resonant
frequencies, shorter sample for high frequencies).
If the measured response of the structure (i.e. it's resonant frequency) is
within about 10% of the forcing frequency (i.e. the rpm of the machine
although it can be at any frequency), resonance should be considered a
problem. The closer the two frequencies are, the more of a problem it is.
Resonance
To correct a resonance problem, there are 4 methods:
• Stiffen the structure - This method raises the resonant frequency of the
structure.
• Add mass to the structure - This method lowers the resonant frequency.
• Change exciting frequency - Change the speed of the machine.
• Add a dynamic absorber to the structure - This method attaches the
equivalent of a tuning fork to the structure. This attachment is tuned to
have the same resonant frequency as the structure and sets up an out-of-
phase signal that has the effect of canceling out (reducing) the signal being
generated by the structure. The dynamic absorber must be properly sized
to handle the forces being generated.
Structural Resonance
Figure 2 - Shape Of A "Supported Beam"
Vibrating in Resonance
Figure 1 - Relatively High Amplitudes Will Be Generated.

The Closer The Exciting Frequency Is To The Structure's Resonant Frequency,
The Higher The Amplitude Will Be.
Structural Resonance Symptoms:
• High (at times, extremely high) vibration in Figure 3 - Shape Of A "Cantilevered Beam"
one direction. This is an important symptom -
Vibrating in Resonance
the vibration in one direction will be
disproportionately high compared to the other
directions.
• The structure shape, mass and rigidity will
determine what is proportionate and what is
disproportionate. It could be as low as 2 or 3:1 Figure 4 - Example Of A "Bump" Test
or as high as 10 or 20:1.
• The structure itself will also determine whether or not the vibration is high
in more than one direction (i.e. vertical pumps tend to have very similar
resonant frequencies in all radial directions all raidal directions have the
same mass and structural stiffness).
Structural Resonance
• Similar (identical) machines exhibiting similar vibration symptoms (as
described above).
• Shape analysis can be initially used to see if the shape fits one of the
models shown above. This test simply involves plotting amplitude values
taken along the structure to determine the "shape" in which it is moving,
or vibrating. This does not confirm resonance.
• Some test (i.e. bump test) must used to determine the actual structural
resonant frequency(s). The existence of the above symptoms does not
prove resonance, it only makes it one of the strong possibilities (looseness,
for instance, can cause disproportionately high vibration in the direction of
the looseness).
• Shape analysis should be performed before attempting to stiffen, or brace,
the structure to correct the problem.
• In the case of a nearby structure (i.e. an I-beam), a clue will be that the
structure will often be vibrating more than the machine itself at the
resonant frequency.
Critical Speeds
Figure 2 - Shape Of A Supported Rotor

Running At Its 1st Critical
Figure 1 - Relatively High Amplitudes Will Be Generated.

The Closer The Exciting Frequency Is To The Structure's Resonant Frequency,
The Higher The Amplitude Will Be.
Structural Resonance Symptoms:

• Radial vibration @ 1x rpm. Figure 3 - Shape Of A Supported Rotor
Running At Its 2nd Critical
• Phase will shift 180° once range has been
completely passed through.
• Vibration usually satisfactory when rotating
sufficiently above or below critical - only when
rotating near the critical is there a problem.
• One test used for determining the critical speed of Figure 4 - Shape Of A Overhung Rotor
Running At Its 1st Critical
a rotor is the test shown below. By measuring the
amplitude @ 1x rpm simultaneously with the phase
at 1x rpm as speed is increased ("Start-Up" plot) or
decreased ("Coast Down" plot), the critical speed
can be determined. The amplitude spike
accompanied by the phase shift indicates a critical Figure 5 - Shape Of A Overhung Rotor
speed. Click here to see an example of this test. Running At Its 2nd Critical
Belt-Drive Problems
Belt-drive problems, which include shaft misalignment, pulley misalignment,
belt wear, belt resonance, belts too tight, belts too loose, pulley eccentricity
and bent shafts, can be relatively straight forward to detect but can be far
more difficult to specifically diagnose and correct. That is mainly due to the
wide variety of problems that can occur in the installation and assembling of
the belt drive, the difficulty of doing field testing on belts and the possibility
of other influences (i.e. the base) having some effect.
It is important to realize that some of the belt-drive vibration problems listed
above do NOT cause vibration at belt related frequencies. Problems due to
the shafts or pulleys (misalignment, eccentricity, etc.) cause vibration at 1x
rpm of the component with the problem (i.e. eccentric pulley on the fan
causes vibration at 1x rpm of the fan). Worn belts, on the other hand, will
cause vibration at harmonics of belt running speed.
The good news, especially in the case of component (belt and pulley) wear, is
that belts and pulleys are typically relatively easy to inspect and inexpensive
to replace. The bad news is that outside of that, they're often difficult to
correct. One positive development in recent years has been the availability of
laser alignment units for belt drives for a moderate price. Unfortunately, in
more cases than not the old string & straight edge is still the alignment
method used for belt drives. The first step to identifying a belt problem is to
determine the belt speed.
Belt-Drive Problems
Determining the Belt Speed:
Obtaining belt speed can be a bit difficult but there are a few tricks. Some
methods are listed here:
Calculate it.
• It can be calculated mathematically if you know some of the variables: belt
length, pitch diameters, center distances, etc.; but usually that is not the
case. The formulas are listed below.
Measure it.
• Detecting it with a strobe light is very difficult since it is usually a slow
flash rate and the mark used may be unreliable (lettering on the belt, etc.).
• A photoeye will be very accurate but will require proper setup and a mark
applied to the belts.
• A "lasertach" would be the best option for an accurate belt rpm since it
does not require a traditional "mark" - a good one will operate on pattern
recognition.
Estimate it. With a bit a practice and understanding of a simple technique, an

analyst can actually extract the probable belt rpm from the spectrum. One
important requirement for this technique to be successful - there must be at
least some vibration at belt-related frequencies. The following steps should
be used:
Belt-Drive Problems
• First, identify any driver and driven related peaks (1x rpm and harmonics).
Label them or make a mental note of which peaks they are.
• Second, imagine cutting the belt in half and wrapping it around one of the
pulleys. How many times will it wrap around - twice ? three times ? This
will give you a very rough estimate in your mind of the belt speed (if it
wraps 3 times, the speed would be 1/3 of that pulley's speed).
• Finally, do the following:
◦ Display your velocity spectrum on a logarithmic scale.
◦ Move your spectrum cursor to your estimated belt rpm and turn on the
harmonics.
◦ Move your cursor left and right in the smallest increments possible
(some software allows movement of 1/10th of a line of resolution - this
helps with identifying harmonics) and try to get the harmonics to line
up on top of any significant but previously unidentified amplitude
peaks.
◦ If there are significant belt related peaks on the spectrum, you should
be able to get them lined up at some point.
◦ If you cannot find any pattern of previously unidentified peaks of
significant amplitude, that means one of two things:
 Either you do not have the spectrum resolution necessary, or;
 There is no significant belt vibration (in which case, why do we
need to know the belt rpm ?).
Belt-Drive Problems
Formulas for Calculating Belt Frequencies:
You can calculate belt RPM with the following: If you know:
3.14 x PS1 x PD1/BL = Belt RPM • The Belt Length

- and -
Either of the Pulley RPMs and Its Diameter:
- or -
Driver Pulley Diameter and Speed
- or -
3.14 x PS2 x PD2/BL = Belt RPM
Driver Pulley Diameter and Speed
Variable Definitions:
PS = Pulley rpm (PS1 = Driver Pulley Speed,
PS2 = Driven Pulley Speed)
PD = Pulley diameter (PD1 = Driver Pulley
Dia., PD2 = Driven Pulley Dia)
SD = Distance between shaft centers
BL = Belt Length
- OR -
If you only know the pulley sizes and diameters, you can roughly calculate
belt length and plug it into the formula above by using the following:
Belt Length = 1.57 x (PD1 + PD2) + 2(SD)

In other words, 2x the center to center distance plus 1/2 the circumference
of each pulley will provide the belt length.
Belt-Drive Problems
Pulley Misalignment
Figure 1 - FFT Typical Of Pulley Misalignment (Which Can Also Be Caused By

Shaft Misalignment As Shown In Figures 3 & 4). This Condition Often Results
In High Axial Vibration At Both Components 1x RPM. This Is Due To
The Axial "Pulling" Force Generated As The Belts Ride Up The Side Of The
Pulleys In An Effort To Properly Align Themselves.
Pulley Misalignment Symptoms:

• High axial vibration @ 1x rpm on component
A at component B frequency.
• Uneven wear axially on pulleys and belts. Figure 2: Figure 3:
Angular1
Figure 4:
Angular 2
Offset
Belt-Drive Problems
Belt/Pulley Wear, Improper Tension & Belt Resonance
Figure 2 - Belt Problems Tend

To Generate
A Large Amount Of Belt "Flap"
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Belt/Pulley Wear Problems;

Resonance Can Also Be A Problem If The Belt Resonance Coincides With
One Of The Forcing Frequencies (Driver, Driven, Belt RPMs)
Belt / Pulley Wear, Belt Resonance Symptoms:

• High radial vibration @ 2x, 3x, 4x & 5x belt rpm.
• Excessive belt "flap" can often be seen.
• Belts and/or pulleys will show excessive wear patterns, cracking, etc. if
wear is the problem.
• Belt tension may be a problem - belts shouldn't be too loose or too tight.
• Belt resonant frequency can be checked by placing transducer on bearing
(radially) and "twanging" the belt like a guitar string while collecting a time
domain or spectrum.
Belt-Drive Problems
Pulley Eccentricity / Bent Shaft (Near Pulley)
Figure 2 - Eccentricity Causes High Vibration

At 1x RPM Of The Problem Component.
Bent Shaft Near Pulley Causes Same
Symptom.
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Pulley Eccentricity / Bent Shaft Near Pulley
Eccentric Pulley / Bent Shaft Near Pulley Symptoms:

• High radial vibration @ 1x on both components - can easily be
misdiagnosed as unbalance.
• Belts act as rubber bands being stretched and relaxed - "reaction" forces -
cannot be corrected through balancing of the component.
• Directional vibration far higher parallel to belts than perpendicular to belts.
• Phase will show 0° or 180° phase shift around bearing.
Sleeve Bearing Problems
Sleeve Bearing Problems - Sleeve bearings are in some ways much more forgiving and
easier to analyze than rolling element bearings since there are no fundamental defect
frequencies and the like to analyze. However, sleeve bearings also demand different
techniques and insights that do not apply to rolling element bearings. For instance:
• Measuring vibration on the housing of a sleeve bearing is unreliable since the
housing moves only a small fraction (perhaps 10% or even less) of what the shaft is
moving.
• Vibration is due to mechanical forces being generated by the machine's rotation. In
the absence of such forces (slow rotational speeds combined with excellent
alignment and balance, for example), extensive wear can take place with absolutely
no indication on a vibration spectrum - especially if the readings are taken on the
housing.
• Unlike greased bearings, sleeve bearings usually have an oil system. If the oil flow
stops or the oil becomes severely contaminated, failure can occur very quickly.
What should be done with sleeve bearings to alleviate these concerns ?
• Oil analysis - This will monitor bearing condition far more accurately than vibration
analysis will.
• Direct Shaft Vibration Readings - Although sometimes impractical or impossible,
taking readings with a proximity probe, a shaft stick or shaft rider will give far more
useful vibration data than readings taken on the housing since these techniques
measure what the shaft is doing - not the housing.
• Time Domain - Looking at the raw time signals will give information on exactly how
the shaft is moving and give visual notice of problems such as rubs that spectra will
not give.
Sleeve Bearing Problems:
Bearing Wear (Looseness)
Figure 2 - Looseness Allows

Signal Shape To Become More
Of A Square Wave. This Causes
Figure 1 - FFT Showing Sleeve Bearing Looseness Harmonics On The FFT.
Sleeve Bearing Looseness Symptoms

• The precise symptoms detected and amplitudes recorded on a spectrum
will depend on the amount of force being generated by the shaft's rotation,
where we are taking the readings and other variables.
• Even if direct shaft readings are taken, if there is not enough force being
generated to cause the shaft to throw itself around as in Figure 2, the shaft
will simply spin as the bearing continues to wear and the clearances
continue to increase. In this case, vibration symptoms of the problem will
be minimal or even non-existent.
Bearing Wear (Looseness)
• If the readings are taken on the housing instead of the shaft, you may be
measuring only 10% or so of shaft movement and the chances are even
greater that vibration symptoms of bearing wear will not be generated.
Other factors now involved include the relative masses of the rotor and
bearing housing / structure (how much can the relatively lightweight shaft
move the massive housing ?).
• It is important to understand that vibration is not monitoring bearing
condition as it is with rolling element bearings. It is monitoring a result of
the bearing wear - looseness - that does not cause vibration. Looseness
merely allows the forces present to have more of an effect than they would
if everything was properly fastened in place. If there are insufficient forces
to throw the rotor around, vibration symptoms are not generated.
• Oil analysis - which monitors oil properties, contaminants and wear metals,
is the best predictive tool to use for sleeve bearing systems.
1. High radial vibration @ 1x and numerous harmonics of Most

rpm - like bearing looseness. In severe cases, peaks may Common
appear at 1/2 harmonics (0.5 x rpm, 1.5 x rpm, etc.). Symptoms:
Oil Whirl
Figure 2 - Note Shaft Is

Spinning At Different Rate
Than It Is Rotating
Figure 1 - FFT Resulting From Oil Whirl (0.42-0.48xRPM Peak Indicates Oil Whirl) Around Bearing Sleeve.
Oil Whirl Symptoms

• High Radial Vibration at 0.42 - 0.48 x RPM.
Oil Whirl, although unusual, can occur when clearances become excessive.
An oil wedge is formed that is held in place by the rotation of the shaft. The
friction of the shaft against the wedge then pushes the shaft around the
housing. Fortunately (for the analyst), it occurs in a very precise sub-
synchronous frequency range. Note that in the animation above the shaft is
rotating at a different frequency than it is moving around the bearing sleeve.
Oil Whip
Figure 2 - Oil Whirl. Note

Shaft Is Spinning At
Figure 1 - Oil Whirl Is Present, Rotor Passes Through Its 1st Critical Different Rate Than It Is
Rotating Around Bearing Sleeve.
Oil Whip Symptoms

• Oil whirl is present
(bearing clearances are
excessive).
• Problem develops when
rotor is running at 2.1-
2.4x critical speed (at
Figure 2 - Rotor Speed Continues To Increase Until Its Critical Speed Coincides
With The Oil Whirl Frequency (i.e. Its 1st Critical Equals About 0.45x Current RPM)
this speed, the
frequency of the rotor's
1st critical is between
0.42-0.48xRPM - the oil
whirl range).
Oil Whip
• High vibration develops at
frequency of rotor's
critical speed. This occurs
when the vibration due to
the oil whirl condition acts
to excite the resonant
frequency of the rotor.
• High vibration remains at
Figure 3 - Rotor Speed Continues To Increase But Destructively High frequency of 1st critical
Vibration Remains At Frequency Of Rotor's 1st Critical Speed
even as rotor speed
continues to increase.
Rubs
Figure 1 - One Possible FFT Resulting From A Rub. Unpredictable Plot Due To Figure 2 - Rotor Is Striking Something
Wave Shape; Time Domain Plots Essential) (i.e. The Housing) In The Vertical Direction.
Note The Signal Shape. How Will The FFT
Treat This Signal Shape ?
Rub Symptoms:
• Time domain the easiest way to diagnose - a 'truncated' signal is produced
(see animation).
• Readings should be taken at several radial positions (would you see the
above signal shape with horizontal readings ?).
• FFT can produce numerous harmonics of rpm (like bearing looseness) but
also sub-harmonics at 1/2 x RPM in severe cases due to the wave shape
(unpredictable results).
• With a short enough time period collected (~2 shaft rotations), the length
of the rub can be estimated.
• Highest amplitude harmonic may be one that is the closest to one of the
component's resonance.
Rolling Element Bearing Problems
Assessing the condition of rolling element bearings is arguably the single
most important job vibration analysts have. Unfortunately, the vibration
symptoms generated by a bearing going bad can vary greatly. However,
bearings usually undergo a fairly predictable series of symptoms as they
deteriorate. Considering the importance of the task and to enhance the
analyst's chances of catching a bad bearing, it is important to use all of the
tools at your disposal. These include:
• Velocity or, preferably, acceleration spectra that cover the frequency range
between 30,000 and 120,000 cpm.
• Enveloped spectra such as ESP, gSE, HFD, etc. These spectra are sensitive
to the impact energy a developing bearing defect generates (a ball or roller
striking a defect is similar to a car hitting a pothole in the road - impact
energy is created).
• Time domain will show the impacts better than the spectrum - especially
on slow speed equipment.
Since most analysts use velocity spectrums to analyze data, we will focus on
the 'normal' progression that occurs on velocity spectra. The advantage of
using acceleration units is that the specific frequencies in question show up
more clearly (at higher amplitudes relative to low-mid frequency range
amplitudes).
The absolute minimum for analyzing bearings, however, should include the
use of enveloped spectra. The corresponding development for those will also
be covered.
Rolling Element Bearings
Earlier Failure Stage Symptoms
Figure 2:
Two Frequencies Are Produced. The Frequency Of
The Bearing Assembly Resonance Affects The FFT
Plot While The Frequency Of The Impacts Affects
The Enveloping Plot.
Figure 1 - Defect Causes Impacts

At A Frequency Equal To The
Component Multiplier x RPM.
Early Stage Symptoms Of Rolling Element Bearing Defects:

Figure 3
• Even in the earliest Typical Enveloping Plot Showing Impacts At Bearing Defect Frequency
stages of a bearing
defect, it generates
frictional or impact-
related high frequency
vibration.
• Due to those impacts
occurring, bearing
defects show up earliest
on the enveloping
spectra (Fig 3).
Figure 4
• Enveloping signals include Typical Velocity FFT Showing Early Stage Bearing Defect. Amplitudes Can Be Very
Low In Early Stages. It Should Be Noted That The Acceleration Spectrum Will Show
gSE (IRD), HFD (SKF) , The High Frequency Peaks Far More Clearly Than The Velocity Spectrum.
ESP (DI), Peakvue (CSI),

Shock Pulse, and more.
• Signal being collected will
contain the impact spikes
showing up at an interval
equal to the defect
frequency.
• At early stages, the time
domain plot will be a
better analysis tool than
either a velocity or an
acceleration spectrum.
• Figures 3 and 4 show two
what might be considered
"typical" plots (envelope
in Fig. 3, velocity in Fig.
5) showing symptoms of
an early stage bearing
defect.
Figure 5
• The impact frequency is Actual Envelope Plot. Note the difference in appearance from the FFT.
The carpet level is a measure of the frictional forces being detected.
displayed by the envelope Impacts occurring are demodulated to generate specific frequencies.
This plot is sensitive to "impact" frequencies - not sinusoids.
plot in Fig. 3. The highest
peak: 1x defect
frequency.
• Figure 4 - the velocity FFT
- shows the bearing
"condition" (i.e. how bad
is the bearing ?).
• The defect frequency
harmonics can be very
low amplitude (not even
noticeable) in the early
stages.
• There will typically be no peak at 1x defect frequency on the velocity or
acceleration FFTs in the defect's early stages.
• To analyze, place cursor on bearing defect frequency (as observed on the
envelope plot) and attempt to use harmonics to line up higher frequency
peaks.
Figure 6
• Figure 5 and 6 show actual Typical Velocity FFT Showing "Early Stage" Bearing Defect Symptoms. The Labeled
Peaks Will Slowly Begin To Rise Up Out Of The "Carpet" Level As The Problem
examples of the two types Begins To Develop. The Rate Of Development Depends On Many Variables.
of plots discussed in the

relatively early stages.
• Velocity FFT provides
bearing condition (how bad
is the bearing).
• A measure of impact
intensity (how quickly the
bearing will deteriorate) can
be assessed by re-scaling
the envelope plot for dB (a
logarithmic measure) and
comparing the bearing
defect peak amplitude to
the surrounding carpet level
(Figure 7).
Figure 7 - Compare Peak (125dB) To Carpet

Level (~102dB). For Difference Above 12dB,
Bearing Should Be Watched To Help Determine
The Bearing's Rate Of Deterioration. Note Scale
(dB) In Upper Left Hand Corner.
Later Failure Stage Symptoms
Figure 1
Advanced RE Bearing Defects: Typical Enveloping Plot Showing Impacts At Bearing Defect Frequency.
Amplitudes May Actually Decrease As Bearings Continue To Worsen.
• In the later stages of a
bearing defect, the sharp
spikes (impacts) occurring
usually diminish in intensity
due to the bearings
components wearing.
• Figure 2 shows the velocity
spectrum showing the
advancing symptoms of the
bearing defect.
• 1x defect frequency eventually Figure 2
Typical Velocity FFT Showing Early Stage Bearing Defect. Amplitudes Can
becomes visible on the Be Very Low In Early Stages. It Should Be Noted That The Acceleration
velocity spectrum. Spectrum Will Show The High Frequency Peaks Far More Clearly Than The
Velocity Spectrum.
• Noise surrounding bearing
related peaks continues to
increase as the signal shape
continues to further distort
due to the bearing wearing
and the components
approaching failure.
• The velocity FFT continues to
show the bearing "condition".
How bad is the bearing ? Much
worse now.
• Figure 3 and 4 show the Figure 3
Actual Envelope Plot. Note the difference in appearance from the FFT.
same two readings as The carpet level is a measure of the frictional forces being detected.
Impacts occurring are demodulated to generate specific frequencies.
shown on the previous This plot is sensitive to "impact" frequencies - not sinusoids.
page only one month

later.
• Note the improvement in
the envelope plot shown
in Figure 3. This is simply
because the impacts are
less intense.
• Note also the Figure 4
Typical Velocity FFT Showing Advanced Bearing Defect Symptoms. The
accompanying Labelled Peaks Will Slowly Begin To Rise Up Out Of The "Carpet" Level As
The Problem Begins To Develop. The Rate Of Deterioration Depends On
deterioration in the Many Variables.
condition of the bearing

as shown on the velocity
FFT shown here in Figure
4.
• The significant increase
in amplitudes at bearing
related frequencies
(harmonics of the defect
frequency) indicate the
bearing is in much worse
shape.
Typical Symptoms
What the previous two pages have shown you is a typical progression of a
bearing defect how it reveals itself on a velocity spectrum and gSE spectrum.
There are, however, many ways a bearing defect can develop. There are also
a variety of methods that are effective at detecting bearing defects. They
include the use of acceleration spectra, time domain plots and ultrasonic
noise detection (Shock Pulse, for instance). The analyst must be able to
"sense" when a bad bearing is developing and tailor the detection method to
meet the need. Some of the velocity spectrum variations include:
• 1) A "haystack" develops at high frequencies on the velocity and
acceleration FFTs. The broad frequency band that is affected can make
specific frequency identification difficult. Frequency range of haystack
development depends on resonant frequency range of bearing assembly.
• 2) Distinct development of the bearing defect frequency harmonics (3x -
10x defect frequency). Which harmonics develop the most and show the
highest amplitudes depends on resonant frequency range of bearing
assembly.
• 3) Lower defect frequency harmonics develop (1x, 2x) with little or even no
high frequency symptoms. This can easily be confused with running speed
harmonics but is quite unusual - far less common than first two
possibilities.
Typical Symptoms
Each of these showed up, to one degree or another, on the previous two
pages of examples. There was a haystack (area of ill-defined high
frequencies), distinct defect frequency harmonics and some development at
1x the defect frequency (very easily confused with 3x rpm, especially if it
were to occur in the absence of the high frequency symptoms - which is
possible although very unusual).
The corresponding development on an acceleration spectrum will, of course,

be more prone to the higher frequency symptoms since low frequency
amplitudes do not show up well on an acceleration spectra. This is good news
unless you have that unusual set of symptoms discussed in #3 above in
which case you may get little or even no indication of the bearing problem.
Analysis Techniques
Interpreting Enveloping Spectra - As discussed in the 'Enveloping Spectra'
section, the actual amplitude of any peaks on the enveloping spectra is not
nearly as important as their amplitude relative to the surrounding noise level
on the spectrum. What does this mean ? The ultrasonic noise level being
detected by your analyzer will have a large impact on the peak amplitudes
you will see. Unlike velocity, gSE (to use a well known unit) will be affected
by other conditions such as the loading of the bearing and the lubrication
level. Poor lubrication quality or, even more so, a lack of lubrication, will
raise the entire floor or carpet level of the spectrum. The author has seen
bearing running normally with gSE amplitudes that range from 0.05 gSE to 2
gSE. There is no general rule of thumb as far as amplitude levels go - they
will vary from machine to machine, environment to environment. Other
analysis methods are required.
There are two main methods for using the enveloping spectra to analyze
bearing condition. They are:
• 1) After establishing the frequency of impacts using the gSE spectrum,
check your velocity spectrum for any high frequency peaks (even low
amplitude ones). If there are none, move on. If there are some (or a
'haystack'), place your cursor on the impact frequency (even if there is no
peak) and try to get harmonics to line up or establish some relationship
that you can begin to assess for severity. An acceleration spectrum will
work even better than a velocity spectrum for this purpose.
Analysis Techniques
• 2) Go back to your gSE spectrum and change your amplitude scale to dB.
Then compare the defect frequency peak amplitude to an estimate of the
nearby (surrounding) carpet level. If the difference is 12 - 18 dB, there is a
fairly significant amount of impact energy occurring. If the difference is
18+ dB, there is a large amount of impact energy occurring. The greater
the level of impact energy, the faster the bearing will deteriorate.
BE CAREFUL - For two main reasons:
• If you are using "overall" or "magnitude" (trend) values without analyzing
the enveloping spectrum you must be aware that a number of different
sources can cause the impact energy that these signals detect and many
are not related to bearing problems.
• These signals are extremely sensitive and can detect problems that are
sub-surface or merely very early symptoms of a problem. Calling for
drastic repairs at this stage can destroy a program's credibility with people
who do not understand the technology. Assuming sufficient lubrication,
bearing replacement at this stage is almost always unnecessary.
If you have questions on these spectra, re-visit the 'Enveloping Spectra'
section.
Hydraulic and Aerodynamic Problems
• Low Pressure (Centrifugal) Fans & Blowers - Not normally susceptible to
these problems to a significant degree.
◦ BPF - Rarely a problem unless the frequency excites a resonant
frequency in the downstream ductwork. This normally is translated into
a noise problem and, less often, a structural problem. Rarely does it
cause a mechanical problem such as accelerated bearing or component
wear.
◦ Flow Turbulence - Can cause low frequency, broadband vibration
(below or just higher than 1x rpm).
• High Pressure Blowers and Compressors - Far more susceptible due to
much tighter clearances and much higher pressures.
• Pumps - Problems are the most severe since it is a non-compressible fluid
that is being moved. Tight clearances and high pressures compound the
potential problems. Not only can mechanical clearance problems cause
large vibrational problems (wear rings, impeller / housing / diffuser
clearances) but operating a pump at different pressures and flow rates
than its design point can cause excessive and even destructive vibration.
Hydraulic Problems:
Recirculation & Flow Related Problems
Figure 1 - Typical Spectrum Showing High Vane Pass Frequency ("VPF" = # of Vanes x RPM).
Symptoms normally in the radial directions but may also be seen axially.
Recirculation & flow related symptoms (including component problems):

• High amplitude VPF or BPF, often accompanied by harmonics of VPF or
BPF.
• Sidebands may be present around VPF and 2x VPF at 1x RPM. If present,
they typically indicate a rotor problem - eccentricity, for instance - that
would cause a modulation of the VPF at a rate of 1x rpm.
• Important to keep in mind that a certain amount of VPF / BPF is normal.
• In cases of extreme flow-related problems, flow instability is created and
have been known to generate vibration that excites the resonant frequency
of the pump impeller much as oil whip acts on the resonant frequency
(critical speed) of a sleeve bearing rotor (turbine).
Hydraulic Problems:
Recirculation & Flow Related Problems
Recommended Actions:
• First step should be a thorough inspection of pump with particular attention

paid to proper clearances and integrity of mechanical components.
• Second step should be to assess system itself - elbows too close to the
discharge, for instance, can cause similar vibration symptoms due to the
reflection of fluid waves back into the discharge of the pump.
• Third step should be to assess operational parameters - flow rates and
pressure - that can also influence this vibration. Actual flow & pressure
should be compared to the pump curve and design point of the pump.
Although insufficient flows and/or pressures lead to cavitation (different
symptoms - see next page), excessive flows and/or pressures can lead to
recirculation and symptoms similar to what is seen here.
Hydraulic Problems:
Cavitation
Figure 1 - Typical Spectrum Showing Cavitation (Random, Very Broad Haystack-Like Appearance). Symptoms normally in the
radial directions but may also be seen axially. Cavitation - occurs when there is insufficient flow into or pressure out of a
pump. This causes the fluid entering to literally be torn apart. Vacuum pockets are created and then implode. This occurs in a
random, unpredictable manner and can be extremely destructive to the impeller and internal pump components.
Cavitation symptoms:
• High frequency, random vibration.
• Sounds like the pump is pumping gravel.
• Although amplitudes may or may not be high enough to affect bearing life
significantly, cavitation causes excessive wear on the impeller and other
internal components.
• May come and go from one collection to the next as load varies.
Hydraulic Problems:
Cavitation
• First step should be to assess operational parameters - flow rates and
pressure - that can also influence this vibration. Actual flow & pressure
should be compared to the pump curve and design point of the pump.
Insufficient flows and/or pressures lead to cavitation.
• Second step should be an inspection of the internal components for
excessive wear with particular attention paid to the impeller vanes.
NOTE: The resonant frequency of a probe or stinger attached to the

transducer can be amplified by minor cavitation symptoms and give
misleading readings. The 9" probe used for years by IRD, for instance, has a
resonant frequency of about 40-50kcpm. Readings taken with this probe on a
pump with minor cavitation can cause high amplitudes in the 40-50kcpm
range and lead to incorrect diagnosis.
Aerodynamic Problems:
Flow Turbulence
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Flow Turbulence. Occurs In Compressors And High Pressure Blowers When Surging Or Load
Variations Occur That The Machine Is Affected By. Often, A Reservoir Or Surge Suppressor Can Be Used To Eliminate This
Feedback.
Flow Turbulence Symptoms:

• High frequency, random vibration similar to cavitation.
• High amplitude blade or lobe (screws) pass frequency (referred to as 'VPF'
below).
• High amplitude harmonics of VPF.
NOTE: Again, it is important to note that VPF on a compressor or blower is a
normal, mechanical vibration. It is risky to over-react to initial readings
without knowing the normal operating characteristics and vibration levels of
the machine. The amplitudes will also be load related and attempts should be
made to consistently take the readings under the same load characteristics.
If the compressor loads or unloads during a reading, it should be taken over.
AC Induction Motor Problems
How To Monitor For Electrical Frequencies
Electrically Generated Vibrations- The supply of AC power to a motor
generates mechanical vibration. Since AC power is supplied as a sinusoid,
each pole of the motor is energized twice - once with a "+" peak and once
with a "-" peak - during each cycle. This means that the most common
vibration frequency that is generated is NOT line frequency - it is 2x line
frequency. This manual section is concerned only with the proper diagnosis
of electrically-related problems. A more in-depth look at the sources and
reasons for these vibration can be found in the <Field Tests> manual.
However, if there is one tip for accurately diagnosing and correcting these
types of problems, it is that the only truly reliable test is on-line current
analysis. If vibration symptoms develop that lead you to believe you have
one or more of these problems, do NOT send the motor to a motor shop.
Find someone to perform an on-line current analysis of the motor. This test
is more reliable than a motor shop test because it is done with the unit under
load and heated up and is less expensive when considering the cost of
removing and re-installing the unit.
• There are two spectra necessary to detecting electrically-related problems.

Each example that follows is taken on one or the other.
◦ High frequency (200 x RPM).
◦ High resolution (12kcpm Fmax w/ 1600 lines is usually sufficient).
• There are also certain terms and frequencies which must be defined:
◦ FLine = Electrical line frequency - normally 60 Hz (3600 cpm) or 50 Hz
(3000 cpm).
◦ 2 x FLine = Torque Pulse Frequency. This is a common frequency found
on a high resolution spectrum.
◦ P = # of poles on the motor. The number of poles is how the speed of
the motor is controlled. The greater the number of poles, the slower
the motor runs. The number of poles is always an even number (2, 4,
6, etc.).
◦ FSynch = Synchronous electrical speed = 2 x FLine / P. This can be
confusing because it refers to electrically synchronous, not
synchronous to the rpm. It is the speed of the rotating magnetic field
that is generated and the speed the rotor tries to attain (it will never
quite reach that speed).
◦ FSlip = Slip frequency = FSynch - rotor RPM (actual speed)
◦ FPole = Pole pass frequency = P x FSlip
◦ WSPF = # Winding Slots x RPM
◦ RBPF = # Rotor Bars x RPM
The most important thing to look for with electrically related vibration is
increasing amplitudes - not just the presence of a peak or pattern of peaks.
Whenever a problem is detected vibration-wise, the next step should be
increased surveillance to see if the amplitudes are trending up or not.
Additional testing can also be performed (surge testing, current testing, etc.)
but no action should be taken until you have a better idea of the unit's
condition. Vibration is NOT the best way to monitor most electrical problems
and that fact must be recognized.
Elliptical Stator, Stator Weakness & Winding Shorts
Figure 1 - Typical Spectrum Showing Indications Of Variation In Air Gap, Winding Shorts, Stator Weakness
Air Gap Variation, Winding Shorts, Stator Weakness Symptoms:

• High amplitudes at 2 x FLine.
• Check for soft foot and repair.
• Check alignment and repair.
• Perform winding tests to assess insulation integrity of the windings.
• Live with it or buy a new motor.
NOTE: It is important to realize that vibration at 2 x FLine is a normally
occurring vibration. The effect on the bearings is no greater or less than the
same amplitude due to unbalance. Do not over-react.
NOTE: Do not confuse the presence of a running speed harmonic with a pole
pass frequency sideband. By definition, a running speed harmonic will always
be separated from 2 x FLine by pole pass frequency.
Elliptical Stator, Stator Weakness & Winding Shorts
Motor Construction Winding Construction
The Stator- consists of the windings and the metal of the motor housing itself
(i.e. the 'iron', or 'core'). The symptom we will see here is related to variation
in the air gap between the windings and the rotor. That air gap is not
perfectly even all the way around. Since the strength of a magnetic field -
which causes the rotation of the rotor - is proportional to the gap (the
smaller the gap, the stronger the force), variation in the gap produces
vibration at (2 x FLine). The greater the variation, the higher the amplitude.
The air gap can also be affected, however, by mechanical problems such as
soft foot (which stresses & distorts the housing), stator looseness / weakness
(allowing it to be influenced to a greater degree by those magnetic forces)
and winding shorts (which cause localized heating and thermal distortion).
The only one of the previous problems that is easily tested for and fixed is
soft foot.
Elliptical Rotor
Figure 1 - Typical Spectrum Showing Indications Of Eccentric Rotor. Similar To Eccentric Stator. Some Cases May Exhibit The
Sidebands Seen Here; Others May Propagate Strictly At 2x Line Frequency.
Eccentric Rotor Symptoms:

• High amplitudes at 2 x FLine.
• Possible sidebands around 2x line frequency and/or 1x rpm.
• Check for soft foot and repair.
• Check alignment and repair.
• On-line current analysis to assess condition and determine severity.
• Live with it or buy a new motor.
NOTE: It is important to realize that vibration at 2 x FLine is a normally
occurring vibration. The effect on the bearings is no greater or less than the
same amplitude due to unbalance. Do not over-react.
Elliptical Rotor
NOTE: Do not confuse the presence of a running speed harmonic with a pole
pass frequency sideband. By definition, a running speed harmonic will always
be separated from 2 x FLine by pole pass frequency.
Figure 2 - Motor Construction Figure 3 - Winding Construction

Phasing Problems
Figure 1 - One Possible Spectrum Caused By A Problem With A Short In One Of The Phases Or Feeder Cables.
Figure 2 - Another Possible Spectrum Caused By A Problem With A Short In One Of The Phases Or Feeder Cables
The main problem caused by phasing shorts is impeding the free flow of
current to the motor. This can cause problems ranging from danger to
personnel to heat-related damage to catastrophic motor failure.
Phasing Problems
Single Phasing Symptoms:
• High amplitudes at 2 x FLine (this can be the only symptom).
• Sidebands around 2 x FLine at 1/3 FLine (1/3 line frequency).
• This may occur with a sudden, dramatic increase in amplitudes. In that
case, a short should be suspected and testing should be performed.
• Inspect connections at junction box on motor.
• Surge test unit from motor control center. This will detect a problem
anywhere in the leads, splices or windings.
• If a problem is found, the splices at the motor should be broken and the
leads and windings tested separately to isolate the problem.
• If nothing found in windings, on-line current analysis should be performed
on the motor.
Motor Construction Winding Construction

Broken / Cracked Rotor Bars
Figure 1 - FFT Showing Advanced Broken / Cracked Rotor Bar Symptoms
Rotor Bar Problems- The electrical problem that is most effectively diagnosed
and monitored through vibration analysis. Broken, cracked rotor bars, bad
joints between end rings and rotor bars and end ring problems have unique
and easily recognizable symptoms. An accurate assessment of condition and
remaining life can also be made with on-line current analysis. The initial
diagnoses, however, can easily be made with vibration data. Do NOT send
the motor to a motor shop - especially in the early stages. It is doubtful that
they will have the equipment to diagnose the problem without running
unreliable and potentially destructive tests on the unit. In cast rotors, these
symptoms can indicate voids in the casting.
Broken / Cracked Rotor Bars
Broken Cracked Rotor Bar Symptoms:
• FPole sidebands surrounding running speed harmonics.
• Advanced problems will exhibit a 'humming' or 'pulsing' sound and feel.
• Significant is the number of and size of the sidebands. They increase as the
unit deteriorates.
• Amplitude at 1x rpm is relatively unimportant - it will fluctuate greatly as
the hot spots being generated cause the rotor to bow unpredictably. It is a
result of the problem - not a cause.
• On-line current analysis to determine severity.
• Limit starts since they are easily the single, most destructive thing you can
do to a motor.
NOTE: The development of sidebands of any amplitude should be noted. This
may require the use of a logarithmic scale. Again, do not confuse a running
speed harmonic adjacent to 2 x FLine with a pole pass frequency sideband -
they are by definition separated by that amount and are not sidebands.

Loose Rotor Bars
Figure 1 - Spectrum Showing Pattern Of Peaks Separated By 2xLine Frequency (Sidebands) In High
Frequency Range (30-90xRPM)
Loose rotor bars- Extremely unusual and never found in cast rotors. As a
loose rotor bar passes a winding slot, the magnetic force causes it to
momentarily lift and then drop. The frequency, then, is the number of
windings slots x RPM (Winding Slot Pass Frequency or WSPF). The number of
winding slots will be between about 25 and 100. The bad news is that you
will not know the number of winding slots and it is very difficult to find out.
The good news is that the vibration is accompanied by a precise sideband - 2
x FLine.
Loose Rotor Bars
Loose Rotor Bar Symptoms:
• High amplitude at a very high frequency (WSPF, but we don't know what it
is) accompanied by sidebands at 2 x FLine. This symptom is not unusual
and at low amplitudes - below 0.1 ips or 2.5 mm/sec - often means little
more than an imperfection in the machine. In fact, it usually has more to
do with a potential winding problem than rotor bar looseness (see the next
page).
• Vibration at 2 x WSPF and even 3 x WSPF w/ sidebands at 2 x FLine. These
are much more unusual and indicate a much more potentially severe
problem.
• Symptoms identical to the next problem - looseness in the windings (make
sure both are understood before recommending any action for either
problem).
• On-line current analysis to determine severity. If a healthy rotor is found, it
is more likely a potential winding problem (next page).
• Winding testing in addition to rotor testing will provide for a comprehensive
eletrcial PdM program.
Loose in Winding Slots, Iron, End Turns And/Or Connections
Figure 1 - Velocity FFT Showing Pattern Of Peaks Separated By 2xLine Frequency (Sidebands) In High Frequency Range (30-
90xRPM). This Will Be Accompanied By The Symptom Seen In Figure 2:
Figure 2 - Envelope Plot Showing 2xLine Peak And Harmonics. This Indicates Impacts Occurring At 2xLine Frequency.
Looseness in the winding slots- are detectable with vibration analysis but
cannot be trended towards failure since the problem does not worsen
(vibration-wise) prior to winding failure. The problem causes wear of the
insulation on the windings and eventually a ground short (catastrophic
failure). Only winding testers (surge testing) can trend this problem and
assess the severity. It is commonly found and should not be over-reacted to.
The symptoms are very similar to loose rotor bars on the velocity /
acceleration spectra. Additionally, however, there will be high amplitude
peaks on your enveloping spectra (e.g. gSE spectrum) at 2 x FLine and
harmonics. Each time a rotor bar passes the loose winding, it lifts and then
drops back. The vibration frequency, therefore, is the number of rotor bars x
RPM (rotor bar pass frequency = RBPF). Like WSPF, it will be surrounded by
2 x FLine sidebands. Like the number of winding slots, we won't know the
number of rotor bars but it's not important - the pattern of peaks separated
by 2 x FLine is the clue we need.
Looseness In The Windings Symptoms:
• High amplitude at a very high frequency (RBPF, but we don't know what it
is) accompanied by sidebands at 2 x FLine. This is not unusual and often
means little. In fact, it often has more to do with a potential winding
problem than rotor bar looseness (see the next page).
• Amplitude peaks on the enveloping spectra at 2 x FLine and harmonics.
• Surge testing to check insulation integrity and test for any wire to wire,
turn to turn and phase to phase shorts as well as the integrity of the
ground wall insulation.

AC Variable Frequency Drives
Variable Frequency Drives - VFD's are AC motors that give the operator the
speed control that a DC Drive normally provides at a small fraction of the
cost and difficulty in maintenance and troubleshooting. It operates exactly as
an AC induction motor does with all of the same electrically generated
frequencies. That's the good news. The bad news is that a VFD is the
vibration analyst's worst nightmare. For example, the vibration frequencies
detectable with both AC induction motors and DC motors are constant - only
a couple vary at all and they are part of a easily recognizable pattern. With a
VFD, the speed is controlled by modifying the frequency of the power supply.
In other words, a motor normally running at 3550 rpm can be slowed down
to, say, 1775 rpm (1/2) by reducing line frequency from 60 Hz to 30 Hz. In
all likelihood, however, you will not know the exact frequency being supplied
to the motor and that is the problem. Some of the effects of this change are:
• 2 x FLine is unknown. This makes identifying air gap and soft foot problems
more difficult.
• Slip Frequency is unknown. This makes identifying rotor bars problems
more difficult.
• Sidebands occurring at 2 x FLine are unknown. This not only makes loose
rotor bars or windings more difficult but also greatly increases the
likelihood of confusing an electrical problem with a bearing problem.
AC Variable Frequency Drives
Extreme care must be taken with VFD's and especially with bearing defects.
Speed at the time of data collection should always be noted as accurately as
possible and the analyst's knowledge of the machine's normal operating
characteristics is even more important than usual.
DC Drives
Figure 1 - "Normal" FFT Taken On DC Drive
DC Drives - generate certain electrical frequencies due to the way the drive
itself works. Direct current is the flow of electricity in one direction (as
opposed to alternating current which changes direction at a rate of 60 times
per second). However, a DC drive gets its power supplied by an AC power
source. Since AC power is a sinusoid, the drive cuts off the bottom ("-"
portion) of the sine wave in order to get a constant "+" voltage. This is done
with an SCR - a 'Silicon Controlled Rectifier'. Using a single SCR, however,
would result in a '+' peak followed by a period of no current flow since the '-'
peak would be cut off. This would be unacceptable as it would lead to a
surging, pulsing power supply. A better solution is to have 3 SCR's with the
AC signals separated by a 120° phase lag. The following animation shows
how that would create a much more constant power supply.
DC Drives
This type of drive arrangement is known as "half-wave rectified". You can see
from the animation that FLine is supplied to the drive. However, if the drive
is operating properly, what frequency would you see ? That's right - 3x FLine.
3x FLine is a normal vibration frequency to be found on a DC motor. This
frequency is known as SCR firing frequency, or FSCR. The amplitude at FSCR
can be up to 0.1 ips (2.5 mm/sec) before beginning to cause any notice.
There can also be a small amplitude peak at 2x FSCR. There is also another
type of drive known as 'full-wave rectified' that uses 6 AC signals. It would
work like this:
FSCR on a full-wave rectified drive is, of course, 6x FLine. You can see how a
full-wave rectified drive gives better control and a more constant voltage
than a half-wave rectified drive does.
DC Drive Problems
Figure 1 - Full-Wave Rectified Velocity Spectrum w/ Drive Problems
Figure 2 - Half-Wave Rectified Velocity Spectrum w/ Drive Problems
Figure 3 - Spectrum on DC Motor w/ Speed Fluctuations

DC Drive Problems
DC Drive Problem Symptoms:
• Excessive (or increasing) amplitudes at FLine and/or FSCR. These can
indicate tuning problems, grounding problems, winding problems, etc.
• Peaks at other FLine harmonics - 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x. With the exception of half-
wave rectifiers (where 3x FLine is the SCR firing freq.), these peaks should
never be present. For example, consider the full-wave rectified signal
below. Imagine having a bad SCR. You would get an amplitude peak at 5 x
FLine (instead of 6x) plus an increased peak at 1 x FLine. A bad firing card,
which can control 1 SCR (half-wave) or 2 SCRs (full-wave), can cause the
loss of 1/3 of the power. This causes peaks at 1/3 x FSCR and 2/3 x FSCR.
The exact frequencies will depend on whether the drive is full-wave
rectified or half-wave rectified and the FLine supplied.
• Sidebands around FSCR. These sidebands typically indicate that the motor
speed is fluctuating or 'hunting'. This can be caused by comparitor card
problems. A high resolution spectrum (at least 1600 lines, probably 3200
and possibly even 6400 lines - depends on motor speed) may be required
to detect these sidebands. The hunting may be most easily detected
initially with a strobe light.
• Whenever abnormal symptoms develop, the drive itself must be thoroughly
analyzed. The exact symptoms, however, should provide important clues
as to where to look first.
DC Drive Problems
DC Drive Problems typically show up on a vibration spectrum as amplitude
peaks at multiples of FLine between FLine and FSCR. With a full-wave
rectifier, this includes 2 x FLine, 3 x FLine, 4 x FLine and 5 x FLine. With a
half-wave rectifier, it means only 2 x FLine. In each case, however, it often
means high amplitudes at 1 x FLine and FSCR. It is important that the
vibration analyst either have a good understanding or work with someone
who has a good understanding of the electronic components in the drive (#
of SCRs, # of firing cards, control cards, how to tune the system, etc.).
Figure 4 - Half-Wave Rectified Figure 5 - Full-Wave Rectified

Gears
Gears & Gear Trains - As with other mechanical influences, gears generate
vibration under normal circumstances. The most common frequency
generated is a the number of teeth x RPM. This is known as 'gear mesh
frequency' (GMF). Since the gear rotates at the speed of the shaft, there is
often a modulation of the vibration at 1x shaft rpm. To better understand the
concept of "amplitude modulation", let's examine some generated signals
and how the FFT turns the signal into a spectrum.
The signal below is represents pure sinusoidal motion - the kind of signal you
only get on the classroom drawing board or in a manual - rarely (if ever) in
real life. There are only, in fact, two sources that create such a signal -
unbalance and resonance. The result of performing an FFT on this signal is
shown below - a single peak labeled on the spectrum at 605 cpm. Note how
each cycle takes 100 msec (0.1 seconds). That equals 10 cycles per second
(10 Hz) or 600 cpm.
Gears
Figure 1: Time Domain for 360 msec (0.360 seconds)

Gears
Figure 2 - FFT performed on signal in Figure 1

Gears
The next signal below also represents sinusoidal motion but at a much
higher frequency - 22x the frequency above or 13,200 cpm. The time sample
has remained the same - 360 msec. This could be generated by a gear with
22 teeth on it mounted on a shaft running at 600 rpm (just like the shaft in
Figures 1 & 2 - what a coincidence !!). Of course, there is no influence at all
at 1x rpm on the below signal (we'll get to that next).
Figure 3 - Time Domain for 360 msec (0.360 seconds)

Gears
Now let's look at how these separate signals can combine.

Gears
What happens if we put the two signals together ? We get what is called a
high frequency riding a low frequency. In other words, the high frequency
vibration rides along on the low frequency as if on a roller coaster. There is
no 'modulation' of amplitude. In other words, the height (amplitude) from
the top of any peak to the bottom of the previous or next valley is constant.
The same applies to the low frequency - the amplitude remains constant.
The FFT will create two peaks - one for the high frequency and one for the
low frequency.

Gears
Now let's consider a situation with 'amplitude modulation'. Consider 2 mating

gears where one is eccentric. At one point during that gear's rotation, it will
bottom out with the mating gear and the vibration at GMF will be very high.
In Figure 3, that occurs at about 100 msec, 200 msec and 300 msec. At the
opposite point in its rotation, the teeth will be backed away from one
another a maximum amount and the amplitude at GMF may be at a
minimum (we'll ignore problems such as gear loading and backlash for the
purposes of this example). In Fig. 3, that occurs at about 50 msec, 150
msec and 250 msec.
Gears
What is happening here is a modulation of the amplitude at gear mesh

frequency. Moreover, it is going from its minimum amplitude to its maximum
and back again to its minimum at a rate of once per shaft revolution - 1x
rpm. What the FFT will generate from this signal is a peak at GMF with
sidebands at 1x rpm. This type of modulation is where sidebands come from
- they are generated by the FFT process. The spectrum would appear like
this:
Gears
Figure 4: GMF w/ Sidebands (amplitude modulation)
Some amplitude modulation on a gear train is not unusual and should not
cause over-reaction. The number of and size of the sidebands should be
closely monitored. Even more significant can be the development of an
amplitude peak at the natural frequency of the gear or gears. Wear or
impacting due to problems such as backlash can cause the excitation of the
natural frequency of a gear. The problem, of course, is that you will not
know that natural frequency. Its appearance on a spectrum must be noticed
and investigated.
Gear Problems:
Normal Gear Spectrum
Figure 1 - "Normal" Spectrum
Normal Gear Drive Symptoms:

• Amplitude peaks at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
• Low amplitude and few sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of
gear with problem.
Gear Problems:
Gear Eccentricity / Gear On Bent Shaft
Figure 1 - Typical FFT For Eccentric Gear Or Gear On Bent Shaft
Gear Eccentricity or Bent Shaft (@ gear) - Causes modulation of GMF

amplitude at 1x rpm of the eccentric gear. Can also cause modulation of the
shaft speeds of the gears if the problem is severe enough. If the output gear
were eccentric, that gear's 1x rpm peak would be higher and the sidebands
would be spaced at that frequency instead of 1x rpm of the pinion.
Eccentric Gear Or Gear On Bent Shaft Symptoms:
• Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
• High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of gear
with problem.
• Higher amplitudes at 1x rpm of gear with problem and, if the problem is
severe, running speed harmonics of that frequency.
Gear Problems:
Gear Eccentricity / Gear On Bent Shaft
• Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth.
• Inspect gears for proper backlash (similar symptoms - see next page).
Gear Problems:
Excessive Backlash
Figure 1 - Typical FFT For Ecessive Backlash
Excessive Backlash - Causes high amplitudes at GMF and harmonics. Also,

the impacting excites the natural frequency of the gear(s). This can cause
unexplained frequencies to appear - they may be the resonant frequencies of
the gear(s). The less loaded the gears are, the more effect the excessive
backlash has.
Excessive Backlash Symptoms:
• High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of one or
both of the gears.
• Amplitude peak at resonant frequency of the gear(s).
• Sidebands at 1x rpm surrounding the resonant frequency.
Gear Problems:
Excessive Backlash
• Inspect gears for proper backlash.
• Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth (similar
symptoms - see previous page).
Gear Problems:
Gear Wear (Tooth Wear)
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Wear On Gear Teeth
Gear Wear - Causes high amplitudes at GMF and harmonics. Also, the
rubbing / wearing action excites the natural frequency of the gear(s). This
can cause unexplained frequencies to appear - they may be the resonant
frequencies of the gear(s). The two key indicators are the appearance of the
gear's resonant frequency w/ sidebands and the size and number of
sidebands surrounding 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF - not the amplitudes at GMF and
harmonics alone (these are better indicators for load and alignment).
Gear Wear Symptoms:
• High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of the
worn gear.
• Amplitude peak at resonant frequency of the gear(s).
• Sidebands at 1x rpm of the worn gear surrounding the resonant frequency.
Gear Problems:
Gear Wear (Tooth Wear)
• Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth (similar
symptoms - see previous page).
• Inspect gears for proper backlash.
Gear Problems:
Gear Load
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Gear Load Problems
Gear Load - Often affects GMF and harmonics more than the running speed
sidebands which are low amplitude and relatively few. Increases and
decreases in GMF and harmonics alone (without significant change in
sidebands) does not necessarily indicate a problem. Even if the load itself is
fairly constant, the gear that is carrying the load is constantly changing so
this amplitude can change from data collection to data collection without any
deterioration of the gear condition whatsoever. A change in the load itself
can also occur and have an even more dramatic impact on the spectrum
amplitudes without reflecting any problem.
Gear Load Symptoms:
Gear Problems:
Gear Load
• None unless there is an increase in sideband activity or the appearance of
possible gear resonant frequencies.
Gear Problems:
Gear Misalignment
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Gear Misalignment
Gear Misalignment - Makes the natural rotation of the gears more difficult
since they must fight their way through an area where the gear teeth are
misaligned. The causes a momentary binding (slowing) of the rotation. The
FFT turns this phenomenon into amplitude peaks at 2x rotational speeds of
the gears and 2x GMF. Each of these symptoms - primarily the 2x GMF -
may indicate a gear alignment problem (which may, of course, be induced
with poor coupling alignment or other external factors such as soft foot).
Gear Misalignment Symptoms:
• Highest amplitudes at 2x GMF.
• Amplitude peaks at other GMF harmonics - 1x, 3x, etc.
• High amplitude sidebands particularly around 2x GMF at 1x or even 2x rpm.
• Shaft running speed harmonics - 2x and even 3x rpm.
Gear Problems:
Gear Misalignment
• Inspect gears for wear patterns misalignment causes uneven wear.
• Check for external problems - shaft alignment, soft foot, etc.
Gear Problems:
Hunting Tooth Frequency
Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Hunting Tooth Symptoms
Hunting Tooth Frequency (FHT) - Is the phenomenon in which two teeth -

one on each gear - that are damaged contact one another at a particular
frequency. In other words, every once in a while during the normal rotation
of these gears, those two teeth will enter the mesh area simultaneously and
contact one another. You can imagine that this would be a relatively low
frequency - lower than the rpm of either gear. It is, in fact, determined by
the common factors of the number of teeth on each gear. The best way to
explain this unusual frequency is with an example.
Gear Problems:
• A 2000 rpm gear with 24 teeth is driving a gear with 84 teeth. That would
make the output speed 2000 x 24/84 = 571.4 rpm. To calculate what the
hunting tooth frequency is, you must first determine the common factors
of each gear (CF). To do this, simply list all the multiplication possibilities
for each tooth number and compare:
24 Tooth Gear 1 x 24 84 Tooth Gear 1 x 84
2 x 12 2 x 42
3 x 8 3 x 28
4 x 6 4 x 21
6 x 14
7 x 12
• What are the common factors ? The numbers that appear in each column
are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. The highest common factor is what we are after
and that number (in this example) is 12. What if you had 23 teeth on the
pinion ? Since the only numbers that can be multiplied to generate 23 are
1x23, the only common frequency would be 1 unless the other gear had a
number of teeth that was an exact multiple of 23 (23, 46, 69, 92, etc.).
Gear Problems:
• Next, we use that number in the following formula:
Hunting Tooth Frequency = (Gear Mesh Freq x Common Freq)
(#Teeth Pinion x #Teeth Bull Gear)
• In this case, that equals (48000 x 12)/(24 x 84) = 285.7 cpm. That means
that 285.7 times per minute, those bad teeth (one on each gear) will enter
mesh together and generate a very high vibration pulse. That may seem
rather high but usually the CF is not as high as 12 - often it will be 1.
• Note that the lower the highest common factor is, the lower the FHT is. If
we had 23 teeth on the pinion gear instead of 24 in the previous example,
the CF would be 1 and the FHT would be 24.84 cpm.
• Note also that you would need extremely good resolution to find any of
these frequencies - you certainly won't isolate the FHT with the same
spectrum used to check 1, 2 & 3x GMF.
Hunting Tooth Symptoms:
• Amplitude peaks at 1 x FHT and possibly 2 x FHT.
• Sidebands of FHT around 1x rpm (of each shaft).
• Sidebands of FHT around 1x GMF and harmonics.
• Pulsing, growling noise coming from gearbox or drive.
Gear Problems:
NOTE: Spectrum resolution will determine if any of the above symptoms are
actually visible on a spectrum. In the above example, for instance, to detect
sidebands at FHT (143 cpm) around 1x GMF (48,000 cpm), spectrum
resolution of about 45 cpm/line would be required. For a 180,000 Fmax
(capturing 1, 2 & 3x GMF), that requires 4000 lines of resolution (3200
would be borderline, 6400 would work fine)
• Inspect gears for damage.

Understanding The Basic Theory Behind Vibration Analysis: Characteristics

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Understanding The Basic Theory Behind Vibration Analysis: Characteristics

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Understanding The Basic Theory

Behind Vibration Analysis

Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It

What Are Some Common Machine Problems

What Are Some Common Machine Problems

Actual Bearing A Transducer Mounted A Transducer Mounted

Amplitude Tells Us:

How Much Movement Occurs

Frequency Tells Us:

How Often Movement Occurs

Phase Tells Us:

In What Direction Is The Movement

1. Bearing Numbering ("Positions”)

Axial Direction is always, Always, ALWAYS parallel to shaft axis

Vertical machines present another opportunity to assign a directional convention since

Before we answer that question, let's keep in mind what exactly

• The 'amplitude' is a measure of the amount of movement.

Simply put, it measures:

• The "At-Rest" position ("0") is the position the bearing would

English or 'Imperial' Units: Mils (1 mil = 0.001")

• What is a "velocity" amplitude ? Technically, velocity measures how

As we began discussing the relationship between velocity and

• The bearing is shown here at its maximum displacement of '-X'.

The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

• The displacement is "+X".

The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

• The displacement is "+X".

The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position again moving moving

English or "Imperial": Inches per Second (ips -or- in/sec)

The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position moving in the "+"

• The acceleration force (amplitude) is at a maximum (peak) pushing

The bearing is passing the at-rest position moving in the "-"

English or Metric - G's (1 g = force of gravity)

• By taking the reciprocal of how many seconds a single cycle takes

Simply put, it measures:

Frequency Identifies The Vibration Source

Frequency is represented as the number of cycles during a certain period - a second or a

• Notice that at low frequencies (primarily below 300

• Consider a machine that generates a gear mesh frequency of 1,080,000 cpm

Displacement Units: < 600 cpm (< 10 Hz)

Velocity Units: 300 - 120,000 cpm (5 - 2,000 Hz)

Acceleration Units: > 60,000 cpm (> 1,000 Hz)

4773 rpm 3580 x 48T/36T 4-Lobe Rotor Speed

515,520 cpm 3x GMF

Metric Units: Imperial Units:

Metric Units: English Units:

V = 4 mm/sec V = 0.16 ips

Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x F Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F

A = 0.0013 g's A = 0.0013 g's

What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?

Metric Units: English Units:

V = 13 mm/sec V = 0.52 ips

Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x F Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F

What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?

Metric Units: English Units:

V = 35.1 mm/sec V = 1.404 ips

Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x F Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F

A = 3.41 g's A = 3.41 g's

What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?

Metric Units: English Units:

V = 15.6 mm/sec V = 0.62 ips

Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x F Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F

What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?