PE : SECTION A COMPONENT 1

(2 ½ HR EXAM – 70%)
SECTION 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Skeletal System
Identify & define the functions of the skeleton:
◦ Support and shape
◦ Protection
◦ Movement
◦ Making blood cells/ platelets
◦ Mineral Storage
Fibrous Joint
◦ No joint cavity

◦ Connected via fibrous connective tissue

◦ NO movement
Cartilaginous
Joints
◦ Connected entirely by cartilage

◦ Some limited movement

Synovial Joint
◦ Have space between the articulating bones
that is filled with synovial fluid

◦ Allows movement in different planes

Synovial Joints:

◦ There are 6 main types you

need to know for AS PE

◦ You also need to know the

articulating bones at each, and
the movement performed at
each
Hinge Joint
◦ Common joints in the body

◦ Include the elbow, knee and ankle

◦ Create movement along one axis

◦ Flexion & extension

Ball and Socket Joint
◦ Allows for the larges range of movement in the body

◦ Include the shoulder and hip joints

◦ EG. Head of the humerus and the scapula

◦ Allows movement in three different planes

◦ Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation and

circumduction
Pivot Joint
◦ The neck joint is the most obvious pivot joint

◦ Also at the radio-ulna joint

◦ The cranium pivots (rotates) around the axis (vertebrae bone).

◦ Allows for rotational movement (also pronation and supination

at the radio-ulna joint)
Plane/Gliding Joint
◦ The ankle are wrist are examples of this type of joint

◦ Where two or more bones meet at a flat surface

◦ The bones glide past each other

◦ They can more up, down, left, right and diagonally.

◦ Flexion & extension in one plane.

Saddle Joint
◦ The bones forming the joint are shaped like a horse’s saddle
(one bone rests on top of the other).

◦ Examples are the trapeziometacarpal joint (your thumb)

◦ Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction

Condyloid Joint
◦ Found at the metacarpophalangeal or radiocarpal joints.

◦ Base of the finger and wrist joints

◦ Allows movement in two planes; flexion, extension, adduction,

abduction, and circumduction.
Articulating Bones
◦ Articulating bones = bones that meet to form a joint and allow movement.

◦ Shoulder – Ball and socket joint – Humerus, Scapula

◦ Elbow – Hinge Joint = Radius, Ulna, Humerus
◦ Radio Ulna – Pivot Joint = Radius, Ulna
◦ Wrist - Condyloid = Carpal, Radius, Ulna
◦ Hip – Ball and Socket = Pelvis, Femur
◦ Knee – Hinge = Femur, Tibia, Fibula
◦ Ankle – Plane/Gliding Joint = Tarsals, Fibia, Tibia
◦ Spine – Cartilaginous Joint = Vertebrae, Coccyx
 Features of Synovial Joint
Ball & socket Shoulder Greater than hip. Greater Less stable than knee and hip joints. Flexion, extension Moves in all 3
than hinge joints   Abduction, planes
More stable than elbow joint adduction,
Rotation
Circumduction

Ball and Hip Greater than hinge joints, More stable than the shoulder Flexion, Moves in all 3
less than shoulder
socket   Extension planes
Less stable than knee Abduction,
Adduction
Rotation
Circumduction
Hinge Knee Less range of movement More stable than shoulder and hip (more Flexion, Moves in 1
than hip/shoulder ligaments) plane
Extension
Hinge Ankle Less range of movement Least stable of all the joints Flexion, Moves in 1
than hip/shoulder
Extension plane
Application of Knowledge (4 marks)
◦ Compare the structure of the shoulder and knee joints in terms of both range of movement and stability
[4 marks]
Specification: Location of muscles
36 Muscles
◦ Agonist = A muscle responsible for creating movement at a joint (it shortens under tension)

◦ Antagonist = A muscle that opposes the agonist providing a resistance for co-ordinated movement (it
lengthens under tension)

◦ Fixator = A muscle that stabilises one part of the body while another causes movement

◦ Synergist = Aids the agonist and stabilises the movement

Functions of the Muscles

Bicep Brachii

Triceps Brachii

Deltoid (keeping upper arm still)

Wrist flexor (Keeps tension in the forearm to stabilise the biceps

when contracting)
Bicep Femoris

Rectus Femoris

Gluteus Maximus

Soleus
Deltoid

Latissimus Dorsi

Wrist Flexors

Trapezius
Key Term Definition

Isometric Muscle The muscle does not change length but remains under
Contraction tension.

Eccentric Muscle The muscle lengthens under tension.

Contraction

Isokinetic Muscle Muscle contraction occurs under constant tension whilst the
Contraction muscles continue to lengthen and shorten

Concentric Muscle The muscle shortens under tension.

Contraction
◦ Flexion - when the joint angle decreases
◦ Extension - when the joint angle increases
◦ Plantar Flexion - making the toes point to the floor
◦ Dorsiflexion - making the toes point upwards
◦ Abduction - moving a limb away from the body’s mid-line
◦ Adduction - moving a limb towards the body’s mid-line
◦ Pronation - turning the wrist to make palm face the ground
◦ Supination - turning the wrist to make palm face the sky
◦ Rotation - When a body part turns about its long axis
◦ Circumduction - circular motion of the arm
Muscle Fibre Types

Slow Oxidative – Slow oxidative muscle fibres are best suited for endurance activities, such
as long distance running, cycling, or rowing.

Fast oxidative glycolytic – Fast oxidative glycolytic fibres provide a faster twitch and larger
force while still maintaining resistance to fatigue, great for extended sprinters such as a 400
meter run specialist.

Fast glycolytic – Fast glycolytic are best suited to powerful and fast explosive movements
such as shotput, high jump, weight lifting
Slow Oxidative (SO)
◦ Structural Characteristics:

• Small diameter
• Large number of mitochondria
• Low energy stores

◦ Functional Characteristics:

• Low production of force

• Low speed of contraction
• Primary function - aerobic based activities
• Low anaerobic capacity
• High aerobic capacity
• High resistance to fatigue
• High Glycogen stores
Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG)
◦ Structural Characteristics:

• Moderate number of mitochondria

• High energy stores
• Medium diameter

◦ Functional Characteristics:

• High production of force

• High speed of contraction
• Primary function - running/sprinting
• High anaerobic capacity
• Medium resistance to fatigue
• Moderate Glycogen stores
• Moderate aerobic capacity
Fast Glycolytic (FG)
◦ Structural Characteristics:

• Low number of mitochondria

• High energy stores
• Large diameter

Functional Characteristics:

• High production of force

• High speed of contraction
• Primary function - explosive, powerful movements
• High anerobic capacity
• Low aerobic capacity
• Low resistance to fatigue
• Low Glycogen stores
Muscle Fibres and Recovery
Work: Relief Ratio’s
Definition: The volume of relief to the volume of work permitted

Slow Oxidative
Produce a low force of contraction
Each muscle fibre recovers quickly & can be recruited (contract) again after just 90 seconds
Work: Relief ratio is LOW (1:1)
No muscle fibre damage due to increased blood flow
(encourages healing process – recovery run/walk)
Work: Relief Ratio’s
Fast Glycolytic
Produce a HIGH force of contraction
Recruited to last 2-20seconds (max. effort)
Often results in eccentric muscle fibre damage
Causes DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness)
DOMS lasts 24-48 hours
Work: Rest Ration is HIGH (1:3)
Once exhaustion has been reached 4-10 days rest is required. 48 hours before using that muscle group
again. Muscle fibres will not be able to be recruited (contract efficiently) before then.
Fast Oxidative Glycolytic
◦ Somewhere in between SO and FG
Structure of The Heart
Pericardium
◦ The wall and sack that contains the heart
 Circulation
1. From Right Ventricle – Left Atrium (via the lungs)

Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle through the

tricuspid valve, the right ventricle contracts and pushes
deoxygenated blood through the semilunar valve into the
pulmonary artery.
-O2 blood travels to the lungs where gaseous exchange
occurs. Blood becomes oxygenated and travels to the heart
via the pulmonary vein. Oxygenated blood enters the left
atrium.
2. From Left Ventricle – Right Atrium (via the body)

Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle through the

Bicuspid valve, the left ventricle contracts and pushes
oxygenated blood through the semilunar valve into the Aorta.
+O2 blood travels to the rest of the body/tissue where gaseous
exchange occurs. Blood then becomes Deoxygenated and
travels to the heart via the Vena Cava (inferior and superior).
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium.
Application

◦ Pulmonary = top (delivers -O2 to the lungs)

◦ Systemic = bottom (delivers +O2 to the body and tissue)

◦ Heart uses a double pump system

The Cardiac Cycle – Heart Function
At rest:
◦ One cycle lasts 0.8 seconds
◦ Approx. 72 bpm
◦ The cardiac cycle consists of cardiac muscle contraction (systole) and cardiac muscle relaxation (diastole).

◦ Systole:
• Contraction phase
• 0.3 seconds
• Split further into 2, atrial systole and ventricular systole

◦ Diastole:
• Relaxation phase
• 0.5 seconds
Heart Function
The heart is Myogenic – it generates electrical impulses without stimulation from the brain
(nervous system)

REMEMBER>>>>>>
◦ Cardiac cycle – blood
◦ Conduction system – electric impulses
Conduction
System
◦ Electrical impulses controlling
the heart beat
 1.

The cardiac impulse is

initiated at the SA node
2.
The impulse travels
through the atria,
causing both atria
to contract.
3.
The impulse reaches
the
AV node, in the right
atrium.

This passes the

impulse down the
bundle of His.
 4.
The Bundle of His
splits into more fibres called
the Purkinje fibres.

This spreads
the impulse around the heart
and up the ventricle walls.

Causing the ventricles

to contract.
 5.

The ventricles relax,

cycle is repeated.
Neural Control of the Heart
◦ Cardiac control centre (CCC) = a control centre in the medulla oblongata responsible for HR
regulation

◦ Sympathetic nervous system = part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for
increasing HR, specifically during exercise

◦ Parasympathetic nervous system = part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for
decreasing HR, specifically during recovery
Short Term
Memory
Key points to remember:
◦ Chemoreceptors Chemo = chemicals = Lactic Acid build up
◦ Thermoreceptors Thermo = temperature
◦ Baroreceptors B = Blood Pressure
◦ Proprioceptors P = Physical Activity = muscle fibre movement

Sympathetic = Speed up HR and SA Node stimulation

Parasympathetics = Parachute = slow you down

Cardiac Response to exercise
◦ O2 demand increases
◦ Blood flow to muscles increase (increase in HR)

This increase in HR will depend on the intensity of the exercise.

 Sub-maximal exercise
 Maximal exercise:
Sub-maximal exercise
Low to moderate intensity (up to 80% MHR)

Below the anaerobic threshold (80% MHR)

Maximal exercise
◦ High intensity
◦ Above anaerobic threshold (80%+ MHR)
◦ Takes the performer to exhaustion
◦ Associated with fatigue
HR response to
increasing exercise
intensity

◦ Generally speaking, HR is
directly proportional to the
intensity at which the
athlete is training at.

◦ IE: the harder they work,

the faster their HR will be
(until they reach their
MHR)
HR response to
sub-max Plateau between

exercise Steep
increase in
120-170 bpm until
exercise ends

first few Steep decline in first

minutes 10-12 minutes of
recovery

Anticipatory
rise

Recovery slows down after

10 mins until it reaches
resting values after 15
minutes

Resting HR
 Continues to increase but at
slower rate until exhaustion
or end of exercise
HR response to
max. exercise
Steep decline in first 5
minutes of recovery

Steep
increase in
first few Recovery slows down
minutes after 10 mins until it
reaches resting values
after 20 minutes

Anticipatory rise

Resting HR
HR response to fluctuating intensities
(team games)
Heart Rate (HR)
◦ Is the number of times your heart beats per minute (bpm)

◦ Average RHR for an adult is 72 bpm

◦ One contraction = 0.8 secs

◦ Approx. maximal heart rate is calculated as:

220 – AGE = MAX HR

◦ A low resting HR indicates a higher level of fitness

◦ It can also be affected by age and gender
Heart Rate (HR) ctd

◦ Bradycardia

◦ Having a RHR lower than 60 bpm = bradycardia, which is caused by:

◦ An increase in SV
◦ Why is caused by…

◦ An increase in size of heart muscle known as ”Cardiac Hypertrophy”

SV Response to exercise

◦ Stroke volume reaches its MAXIMUM

capacity at sub-maximal exercise intensity (even if the athlete is
trying to work at 100% MHR)

◦ SV = The amount of blood leaving the ventricles per beat

How can the heart make up for the SV not being able to pump
more per beat?
◦ By increasing the speed that it beats (HR)

Remember: Q = SV x HR
Stroke Volume (SV)
◦ The volume of blood leaving the ventricles (ventricular systole) per heartbeat

◦ It is the difference between volume of blood in the ventricles before and after ventricle
contraction

◦ The following term used to measure SV:

◦ Ejection Fraction – the proportion of blood that was in the ventricles that eventually leaves the
ventricle
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)

◦ The amount of blood in the ventricles after diastole (relaxation/filling)

End Systolic Volume (ESV)

◦ The amount of blood in the ventricles after systole (contraction)

Q response to exercise
Cardiac output = SV x HR

Therefore, Q increases inline with exercise intensity and reaches a plateau point before maximal
intensity is reached (the heart physically cannot pump any more blood around per minute).

During recovery there is a rapid decline followed by a slower decrease back to resting levels.
Cardiac Output
◦ This is the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle per minute (L/min)

◦ Calculate using :
◦ Q = SV * HR

◦ So if an average persons SV = 70
◦ And HR = 72 bpm
◦ Q = 5.04 L

◦ Remember 1000ml = 1L
Characteristics of
Blood Vessels

◦ Veins & venuoles transport blood at

lower pressure

◦ Arteries and arterioles transport blood at

higher pressure

◦ Both vasoconstrict (get smaller) and

vasodilate (get bigger) in order to
regulate blood flow to and from the
heart. This also helps work against
gravity

◦ Capillaries are 1 cell thick and have a

large surface area. Gaseous exchange
occurs here
Venous Return Methods
1. Skeletal/muscle pump mechanism

2. Pocket valves in the veins

3. Respiratory pump mechanism

4. Gravity

5. Suction pump of the heart

6. Venous tone/smooth muscle pump

Skeletal Muscle Pump

◦ Muscles contract and relax around the veins

◦ They press on the veins and pump/squeeze the

blood back to the heart

◦ This helps work against gravity

Pocket Valves
◦ These only allow blood to flow in one direction

◦ They prevent the back flow of flood when working against

gravity

◦ However, blood can pool here and cause varicose veins

Respiratory Pump

◦ Breathing in increases pressure in your chest cavity and

abdomen

◦ This increases in pressure squeezes/compresses the nearby

veins and helps pump blood back to the heart
 Gravity
◦ From the upper body, gravity helps the blood return to the heart.
◦ This pressure from above helps the veins below the heart.

◦ However, from the lower body this is more difficult.

◦ Therefore, veins have pocket valves and other venous return
mechanisms (muscle pump/respiratory pump) aid this process.
Suction Pump of the Heart

◦ During diastole (relaxation and filling) or after systole (contraction) blood is sucked back into
the heart chambers due to a change in pressure.

◦ This creates a negative pressure gradient and sucks blood back into the heart.
Venous tone/smooth muscle
◦ The thin layer of smooth muscle in a vein wall, contracts and relaxes to help squeeze the blood
back towards the heart.

◦ This is only a partial contraction

Starling’s Law of the Heart
◦ The more blood that enters the heat during diastole (relaxation), the more forceful the systole
(contraction) phase will be when forcing the blood out.

THIS IS Starling’s Law of the Heart

in HR due to exercise =
in venous return (6 main mechanisms) =
in strength of contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole)
Starling’s Law
◦ 1. Use 'Starling's law of the heart' to explain how stroke volume increases when running. (3
marks)

◦ Starling’s Law states that the greater venous return, the greater stroke volume is.
◦ As venous return increases the walls of the ventricles are stretched further.
◦ Results in a more powerful contraction.
◦ Increases the amount of blood pumped around the body during exercise.
Vascular Shunt Mechanism
Vascular Shunting – the redistribution of blood using vasoconstriction and vasodilation of blood
vessels

During Exercise:
◦ Vasodilation of arterioles to the working muscles. Increases blood flow and oxygen supply
◦ Vasoconstriction of arterioles to the non-essential organs (liver and intestines)

During Rest/Inactivity:
◦ Vasodilation to the non-essential organs (liver and intestines)
◦ Vasoconstriction to the muscles
Vascular Shunt Mechanism
◦ Precapillary sphincters also aid blood redistribution

◦ Rings of muscles located in the openings of capillaries

◦ During exercise, these relax to allow more blood flow to the capillaries in the working muscles
Application
1. In a paragraph format, describe the process of vascular shunting during exercise and rest for a long
distance runner (5 marks)

During Exercise a long distance runners arterioles will be vasodilating to the working muscles such as
rectus femoris. This will therefore cause an increase in blood and oxygen supply.
During exercise there will be vasoconstriction of arterioles to the non-essential organs (liver and
intestines).

During Rest/Inactivity there will be vasodilation to the non-essential organs (liver and intestines)
Furthermore, during rest/ inactivity there vasoconstriction to the muscles
V.C.C
Vasomotor
Control
Centre
Blood Pressure & Blood Velocity
◦ When the heart contracts it pushes blood into blood vessels which creates blood pressure.

◦ A blood pressure reading consists of two values: systolic value – blood pressure while the
heart is squeezing. diastolic value – blood pressure while the heart is relaxing.

◦ Normal blood pressure to be below 120 mm Hg systolic and 80 mm Hg diastolic.

Factors that determine Blood Pressure in
general
◦ Age
◦ Level of fitness
◦ Exercise intensity (HR, SV, Q)
◦ Health
(diet, stress, cholesterol, drug use)
◦ Friction in the blood vessels
◦ Blood viscosity (thickness)
◦ Blood vessel distance from the heart
◦ Cross sectional area (lumen size) of blood
vessels
Factors that determine BP in arteries,
capillaries & veins
Arteries (high BP)
Contractile force from the heart increases BP
Closer to the heart
Smaller cross-sectional area (smaller lumen)
More friction

Arterioles/Capillaries/Venuoles (lower BP)

Larger cross-sectional area (lumen)
Further away from heart = less contractile force
Less friction between blood and vessel walls

Veins (slightly higher BP)

Due to the 6 venous return mechanisms pumping blood
back to the heart
How and why BP changes during
exercise
◦ HR, SV and Q all increase
◦ Venous return increases
◦ Systolic BP increases
◦ Blood vessels VD to muscles therefore less friction in blood vessels
◦ Higher intensity exercise increases BP higher
than sub-max exercise
◦ Blood viscosity increases (becomes thicker)
due to losing water in blood plasma via
sweat
Why Blood Velocity (speed) in different
blood vessels is different
Aorta (artery)
Pumping action of the heart increases blood velocity
Smaller cross-sectional area increases BV

Arterioles/capillaries/venuoles
Further away from the heart = lower BV
Due to larger cross-sectional area which
allows gaseous exchange to happen

Veins
Blood velocity increases as cross-sectional area
is smaller
Venous return mechanisms also increase BV
 TRANSPORT OF
OXYGEN AND
CARBON DIOXIDE
Gas (O2) transport
◦ During exercise O2 diffuses into the blood via the capillaries

◦ 3% dissolve into the plasma

◦ 97% combines with Haemoglobin (Hb)

◦ This forms Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2)

◦ Each haemoglobin molecule = carries 4x O2 molecules (fully saturated

When and where…
◦ This occurs in places with HIGH partial pressure of 02 (PO2) E.g. In the blood vessels
surrounding the lungs

◦ In tissues with low PO2 like muscles, the Oxyhaemoglobin gives up (dissociates) some of its
O2 to the muscles
◦ Therefore the haemoglobin is less saturated (<75%)

◦ When the haemoglobin arrives back to the lungs where PO2 is high, it becomes 100%
saturated again
Gas (CO2) transport
◦ CO2 get transported in a similar way once it leaves the muscle

◦ 70% is transported as Carbonic Acid (bicarbonate)

◦ 23% combines with Haemoglobin (Hb) to form Carbaminohaemoglobin (CO2Hb)

◦ 7% also dissolves in the plasma

Recap
◦ Chemoreceptors detect that more CO2Hb is travelling in the blood

◦ Blood is more acidic

◦ CCC stimulates the SA node (via sympathetic NS)

◦ HR increases

◦ Speeds up gaseous exchange to dissociate the CO2 in the lungs to be breathed out
Myoglobin
◦ Myoglobin is stored in the muscles and acts as a reservoir or temporary store

◦ Oxygen has a higher affinity to (prefers) Myoglobin compared to Haemoglobin

◦ Oxygen is stored by the myoglobin until it is needed by the mitochondria in the muscles cells (where
respiration occurs)
Areas of partial pressure
Oxygen Partial Pressure (ppO2)
◦ High = Lungs
◦ Low = Muscle site

Carbon Dioxide Partial Pressure (ppCO2)

◦ Low = Lungs
◦ High = Muscle site

◦ High PP areas means haemoglobin will collect the gas molecules (like a bus at a bus stop)
◦ Low PP areas means haemoglobin will dissociate the gas molecules (drops them off)
Dissociation
Dissociation = getting rid of or dropping off

◦ Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve = getting rid of Oxygen from Hb

Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Structure & function of respiratory
system
◦ 1. Nasal cavity
◦ 2. Mouth
◦ 3. Larynx
◦ 4. Right lung
◦ 5. Right Bronchus
◦ 6. Diaphragm
◦ 7. Pharynx
◦ 8. Trachea
◦ 9. Left bronchus
◦ 10. Bronchiole
◦ 11. Alveoli
Lobes & Pleural Membrane
 Internal Vs External Respiration

Release of O2 to respiring
cells for energy
Movement of O2
production. The
into the blood and
collection of waste
CO2 into the lungs
products.
Mechanics of Breathing – Key Terms

◦ Alveoli – tiny thin-walled air sacs found in large numbers in the lungs

◦ Inspiration – the act of breathing in

◦ Expiration – the act of breathing out

◦ Diffusion - Air moves from areas of HIGH pressure/concentration to areas of LOWER

pressure/concentration
 Inspiration @ Rest Vs Exercise
Rest
• Active process
• External IC muscles contract
• Diaphragm contracts & moves
downwards
• Pleural membrane attached to
thoracic wall
• Space inside chest cavity increases
• Lowers pressure
• Gas moves from areas of high
pressure to low pressure; air is
drawn in
Exercise
• Active process
• External IC muscles contract
• Pectoralis minor & Sternocleidomastoid
also contract lifting ribs up and outwards
further
• Diaphragm contracts & moves
downwards more forcefully
• Space inside chest cavity increases even
further
• Lowers pressure
• Gas moves from areas of high pressure
to low pressure; air is drawn into lungs
more quickly
• This increases the depth of breathing
 Expiration @ Rest Vs Exercise
Rest
• Passive process
• External IC muscles relax, ribs
and sternum lower
• Diaphragm relaxes – upwards
into a dome shape
• Volume of chest cavity reduces
• Pressure inside the lungs
increases
• Air is forces out of the lungs
Exercise
• Active process
• Internal IC muscles & contract &
rectus abdominis
• Creates a greater downward and
inward movement
• Decreases volume of chest cavity
faster
• Increases pressure inside chest
cavity
• Air is forced out more quickly
• Breathing rate increases
◦ Tidal Volume - The amount of air breathed in and out of the lungs per breath

◦ Residual Volume - Volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal expiration

◦ Inspiratory Reserve Volume - Amount of air that can be further inhaled after a normal inhalation

◦ Expiratory Reserve Volume - Amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation

◦ Functional Residual Volume - Volume of air remaining after a normal exhalation

◦ Total Lung Capacity - Maximum amount of air that can be moved in or out of the lungs in a single
respiratory cycle

◦ Vital Capacity - Total volume of air that can be forcibly expired after maximum inspiration
Lung Volume - Equations
◦ VC = TV + IRV + ERV

Minute Ventilation (VE)

VE = the amount of air moved in and out of the lungs in one minute (L/min)

VE = TV x frequency of breathing

◦ Estimate for adults 500-600ml

Diffusion & Partial Pressure
◦ We need to understand how we get air from the lungs into our blood and muscle cells.
◦ Also, how we get rid of Carbon Dioxide from our muscle cells and blood.
◦ Air is a mixture of O₂ and CO₂

◦ Diffusion - The process of gas molecules moving from areas of HIGH concentration to areas
of LOW concentration
Diffusion
◦ Diffusion is dependent on there being a difference in pressure or a pressure gradient.

◦ Molecules will move from high pressure/concentration to areas of low pressure/concentration

◦ This movement occurs along a diffusion gradient

◦ The bigger the difference in pressure/concentration, the steeper the diffusion gradient
Diffusion in the Lungs
Key points
◦ The wall of the Alveoli is SEMI-PREMEABLE

◦ The gaps allow O₂ and CO₂ to move through them

◦ The concentration of gas is known as Partial Pressure (P)

◦ It is measured in mmHg (millimetres of mercury)

Features of the lungs to enable efficient
gaseous exchange…
◦ Each alveoli has a large surface area
◦ Large capillary network
◦ One cell-thick/semi-permeable membrane
◦ Short distance for diffusion
◦ Alveoli has a layer of moisture
◦ Many alveoli which increases surface area
Altitude Training
◦ Endurance based training by elite athletes in a range of sports.

◦ Usually athletes will include 2 altitude training blocks per macrocycle (year).

◦ 1 of these will usually be 2-3 weeks before a competition

Altitude, partial pressure & Hb saturation

◦ Higher altitude = lower pO2

◦ The steeper the diffusion gradient, the faster diffusion occurs

◦ Altitude = lower pO2, therefore a less steep diffusion gradient between lungs and air, therefore
diffusion occurs at a slower rate

◦ Less O2 transportation to working muscles

This results in ….
◦ Increase in breathing frequency

◦ Decrease in blood density (loss of plasma)

◦ Increase in density of red blood cells to maximise O2 transport

◦ Decrease in SV (temporarily)

◦ Increase in Heart Rate to maintain Cardiac Output

◦ Decrease in the intensity that the athlete can train at whilst at high altitude

◦ Increase in oxygen debt (less O2 binds to Hb)

◦ Decrease in aerobic capacity (short term)

 Why train at Altitude
◦ Acclimatisation Occurs…

◦ Red blood cells contain haemoglobin; affinity to O2 (carries O2 to muscles)

◦ Less O2 in the air = more red blood cells develop

◦ 2-3 weeks prior to competition = altitude training

(can take up to 6 weeks to gain this advantage)

◦ Therefore, when back at sea level for the competition you have more red blood cells

◦ Therefore your body can carry more oxygen

◦ Therefore performance levels increase (ability to work at an increased intensity)

After 2-6 weeks at altitude, your body
adapts…
◦ Increase in myoglobin
◦ Increase in amount of haemoglobin
◦ Increased delivery of oxygen to working muscles
◦ Increased VO2 max

* at Sea level
Immediate or Short Term Effects
◦ Low PO2 / less oxygen available at altitude

◦ Reduced diffusion gradient between lungs and the air

◦ Haemoglobin is not as fully saturated

◦ Less oxygen is delivered to the muscles

◦ Reduced aerobic performance OR reduce performance in endurance events