Manufacturing Processes

K.Srinivasulu Reddy

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
Bulk Deformation Processes
 Forging
 Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or
pressing.
 The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive blacksmith).

 Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging in size of

a bolt to a turbine rotor.
 Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain
metals may be cold-forged.

Drawing out or Cogging: Metal gets elongated with reduction in cross

sectional area. Force is applied in a direction perpendicular to the
length axis.
Upsetting or Heading:To increase the cross-sectional area of the stock
at the expense of its length. Force is applied in a direction parallel to
the length axis
Drawing out/cogging and Upsetting/heading operations
Upset Forging(Heading)
 Forging

(Bulging)

Open Die Forging

Closed Die Forging

Heading (Upsetting)
 Upsetting with Barreling
2r  2 
Forging force, F  Y f r 1 
 3h 



(a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies.

(b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction.
(c) Deformation with friction.
Note the barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
 Forged Components

(a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife.

(b) General view of a 445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press.
 Products of Forging

CHAIN Crane hook

SPANNER

CRANK SHAFT CONNECTING ROD

 Microstructure as a Function of Manufacturing
Method

Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain

flow.
(a) Casting.
(b)Machining form a blank, and
(c)forging.
Each process has its own advantages and limitations regarding external and
internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish,
and the economics of production.
 Costs of a Rod Made by Forging and Casting

Relative unit costs of a small connecting rod made by various forging and casting
processes. Note that, for large quantities, forging is more economical. Sand
casting is the most economical process for fewer pieces.
Types of forging

1. Smith forging or Hammer forging

(Open die forging)
2. Drop forging or Die forging
(Closed impression die forging-
series of blows)-drawn out
3. Press Forging(Closed impression die forging-
continuous squeezing)-
drawn out
4. Machine Forging – Upset forging
 1.Smith Forging
 This is the oldest type of forging, but it is now relatively
uncommon.
 The impact force for deformation is applied manually by the
blacksmith by means of a hammer.
 Manual hammering or by power hammers
 Heating the stock and beating it over the anvil
 Operator has to manipulate the component in between the blows.
SMITH FORGING with sledge hammers

Requires lot of skill

More time consuming
Beneficial for small lots or in trail production & Heavy cost of
closed impression dies can’t be justified
Drawing can be accomplished with a variety of tools and methods.

Two typical methods using only hammer and anvil would be

hammering on the anvil horn, and hammering on the anvil face
using the cross peen of a hammer.

Another method for drawing is to use a tool called a fuller, or the

peen of the hammer, to hasten the drawing out of a thick piece of
metal. 

Sledge
Cross peen Hammer Hammer
 Fullering & Edging are used to distribute the material

– Fullering: CA of metal is decreased and length is

increased. Material is distributed away from an area.
Possible in open dies also. Reduce the stock to the
desired size.

– Edging: Also called preform. To gather the exact

amount of material required at each cross section of the
component. Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars
and to gather metal.
 A properly designed preform ensures a defect-free flow
of metal, complete die fill and minimum flash loss.
 Drawing out and upsetting tools
Fullering Edging

Very first steps to reduce the stock to the desired size.

Fullering marks are cleaned by means of flattening

 Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the metal. Closed
impression die. Repeated hammering to the material in die using drop
hammers. More complex shapes compared to smith forging.
Dies are in two halves
- Lower : fixed to anvil of the machine
- Upper : Fixed to ram and moves up and down.
 Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the metal, in which the
maximum impact is on the metal surface.
 Dies are expensive being accurately machined from special alloys
(susceptible to thermal shock).
 Drop forging is good for mass production of complex shapes like, crank,
crank shaft, connecting rod, wrench, crane hook.
Forging a Connecting Rod
 Stages in forging a connecting rod for
an internal combustion engine.
2.Edging operations to properly distribute the
material when pre shaping the blank for forging

3. Blocking: Semi finished operation with out flash

4.Finishing: Actual shape obtained with little extra

metal

5. Trimming: Flash is trimmed

Drop forging of connecting rod
Stages in drop forging of a lever
3.Bending impression: This is required for those parts which have a
bent shape.
If bends without bending impression, the grain flow direction will not
flow the bent shape and point of bend may become weak. Hence to
improve grain flow bending impression is incorporated after edging
impression.

4.Blocking – Also called semi finishing operation, rough shaping of the

part. Acquires the shape very near to final one.
Characterized by large corner radii and fillets but no flash. More than
one blocking impression for complex shapes.

5.Finishing Impression: Where actual shape is obtained. A little extra

metal is added to ensure the metal completely fills the die cavity.
This will form as flash and surrounds the forging in parting plane.

6.Trimming: Last stage where flash is trimmed to get the forging in

usable form.
Drop Forging
Source: SDL Forgings
 Forging hammers Contd..
A forging hammer derives its power from the kinetic energy of a
ram.

The ram and upper die travel in a linear path towards the lower die
and anvil. The work is placed in the lower die.

At the point of collision when the two die meet, kinetic energy is
transferred to the metal forging, forming the part.

Although the work stock absorbs a tremendous amount of the blow,

much energy is transferred to the machine and to the floor of the
building.

This should be a consideration when planning a manufacturing

operation using a drop forging hammer.
 Forging hammers Contd..
Anvil hammers- Two types
1.Gravity drop hammers
2.Power drop hammers
In gravity drop hammer, upper ram is positively connected to a
board(board-drop hammer), belt (belt-drop hammer),
chain (chain-drop hammer), or piston(oil or air or steam)
Ram is lifted to a certain height and then dropped on the stock
placed on the anvil.

During the down stroke , ram is accelerated by gravity and builds up

the blow energy.

The upstroke takes place immediately after the blow, the force
necessary to ensure quick lift up of the ram can be 3 to 5 times the
ram weight.
In power drop hammer, in the down stroke, in addition to gravity,
the ram is accelerated by steam, cold air or hot air pressure
 Forging hammers Contd..

SDL Forgings
NKH- BELT DROP HAMMER 2  Ton Capacity Drop Hammer NKH Make
 1 2 3 4
Forging hammers Contd..

Anvil

Types of gravity-drop hammers

1.Board drop
2.Belt drop
3.Chain drop
4.Air drop
 Forging hammers Contd..

Working of Belt drop hammer

Board Drop Hammer Forging hammers Contd..
 Forging hammers Contd..

The board drop hammer is a drop forging machine tool that

relies only on gravity.

A hardwood board is attached to the ram, rollers grip the board

and can raise the board and ram due to friction forces between
the board and rollers.

Once the ram is raised to the height needed, the rollers can be
pulled apart and the apparatus will be released, sending the
forging hammer on its way.
Belt Drop Hammer Forging hammers Contd..
 Forging hammers Contd..

The belt drop hammer is another drop forging machine tool

that operates similarly to the board drop hammer.

Rollers grip a belt that is connected to the ram. They raise the
hammer by the belt, this causes the belt to gain slack.

Pulling apart the rollers will release the belt.

When the belt is released, the hammer will fall. This type of
machine also relies only on the force of gravity.
 Forging hammers Contd..

Power drop hammers can accelerate the ram downward to a

higher speed than conventional drop forging machine tools, they
can also accommodate a more massive ram.

Power drop hammers can deliver much more energy per blow
than conventional drop forging hammers.

Pressurized air or steam is used to lift the hammer to the right

height.

The pressure holding up the ram is then released and

simultaneously pressure is applied to the top of the apparatus.

A release in pressure lets the hammer drop and a simultaneous

application of pressure to its top sends it accelerating downward
at a high rate of speed towards the metal forging.
Similar to drop forging dies.

Metal is shaped by means of single continuous squeezing action.

This squeezing is obtained by means of hydraulic presses,
because of which material gets uniformly deformed through out its
entire depth.

Hammer force is fully absorbed by the stock & impression

obtained are clean.
Draft angles used are less than drop forging.
More press capacity is required.
So, somewhat smaller components are press forged.

Tong holds are not required.

Power Drop Hammer
Press forging machine
 Press Forging Machine

Capacities: 5 MN to 150 MN
Principles of Various Forging Machines

(a) Screw press. (b) Hydraulic press.

Also called Upset forging
Both drop & press are also using machines, but only upset forging is
machine forging

Originally developed for bolt heads. Widely used because of

beneficial grain flow
Ex: Gear Blanks, shafts, axles etc

Upsetting machines called upsetters are horizontally acting,

consisting of a die and corresponding punch or heading tool.

Die consists of 2 parts:

1.Stationary gripper die (fixed to the machine)
2.Movable gripper die (moves along with die slide of upsetter)
Stock is held between the two gripper dies
 Upset Forging/Machine Forging

By squeezing pressure rather than by an impact force.

 Heading

(a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
 Roll Forging
Cross section of a bar is reduced or shaped by passing it
through a pair of rolls with shaped grooves

Roll forging is used to produce tapered shafts and leaf springs,

table knives and hand tools
 In roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between die
rollers which reduces the cross-section and increases the
length

 Roll forged parts: Axles, leaf springs etc.

 Roll Forging cont..

Two illustrations of roll forging (cross-rolling) operations.

Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process

using specially designed rolls.
 Roll forged drill bit

Roll Forging machine

Roll Forging
Roll Forged components
 The Coining Process

coins, medallions, & jewelry

(b)

(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were
made by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details.
(b) An example of a modern coining operation, showing the work piece
and tooling. Note the detail and superior finish that can be achieve in
this process.
Metals in Decreasing Order of Forgeability
 Forging Defects

1.Unfilled sections: Some sections of the die cavity are not

completely filled by the flowing metal.

Reasons: Improper design of forging die & using faulty forging

techniques

2.Cracks: Internal as well as external cracks appear due to

excessive cold working

3.Cold shut: Improper design of the die where in corner and fillet
radii are small, the metal does not flow properly into the corner and
ends up as a cold shut

4.Scale pits: Irregular depressions on the surface of the forging

Reason: Improper cleaning of the stock used for forging.

The oxide and scale present on the stock surface gets embedded
into the finished forging surface
5.Barreling: When hot work comes in contact with the dies, there will
be a decrease in the temperature of the surface coming in contact
with dies.

Upon applying the forging load, since central portion will have lower
flow stresses, it will move faster than the material near the edges.

This result in non cylindrical large components called Barreling.

6.Die shift: Caused by misalignment of the two die
halves, making the two halves of the forging to be of
improper shape

7.Flakes: These are basically internal ruptures caused by

the improver cooling of the large forging. Rapid cooling
causes the exteriors to cool quickly causing internal fractures.

Remedy: Following proper cooling practice

8.Improper grain flow: This is caused by the improper

design of the die which makes the flow of metal not following
the final intended directions.
 Defects in Forged Parts

Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during
forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal
defects caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and
the material at the center flows past the filled regions as the die closes.
 Forging Design
1.Parting Plane

2.Draft(Drop forgings draft > upset forging draft)

3.Fillet & corner radii(Fillet radius >corner radius)

4.Shrinkage allowance(0.05 to 1.2 mm)

5.Die wear allowance(0.4 to 2 mm)

6.Finish allowance(1.5 to 5 mm)

7.Cavities(Depth is limited in drop forging)

 Swaging (Rotary Swaging or Radial Forging)
A solid rod or tube is subjected to radial impact forces by
a set of reciprocating dies. (fig. a & b)

The die movements are obtained by means of a set of rollers

in a cage, in an action similar to that of a roller bearing.
The workpiece is stationary and the dies rotate, striking the
workpiece at rates as high as 20 strokes per second.
In die-closing swaging machines, die movements are
obtained through the reciprocating motion of wedges(fig. c).
In some machines, the dies do not rotate but move radially in
and out.

Ex. Screw driver blades and soldering –iron tips

 SWAGING

(a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process.

(b)Forming internal profiles on a tubular workpiece by swaging.
(c)A die-closing swaging machine showing forming of a stepped shaft.
(d)Typical parts made by swaging.
Swaging
The Swaging process reduces the diameter or produces a taper on a round
work piece. This can be solid or tube.

The swaging machine works by using 2, 3 or 4 opposing split dies which

separate and close up to 2000 times a minute.
 Swaging with and without a Mandrel
In tube swaging, the internal diameter and/or the thickness of
the tube can be controlled with or without use of internal
mandrels (fig. a & b)

For small diameter tubing, high strength wire is used as a

mandrel.

Mandrels can also be made with longitudinal grooves, to allow

swaging of internally shaped tubes(fig. c)

Ex: Rifiling in gun barrels is made by swaging a tube over a

mandrel having spiral grooves.

Rotary swaging process is usually a cold working process, used to

reduce the diameter, produce a taper, or add point to a round
workpiece.
It can also impart internal shapes in hollow workpieces through the
use of a mandrel
 Swaging with and without a Mandrel

(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; note the increase in wall thickness
in the die gap.
(b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the tube
depends on the mandrel diameter.
(c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped
mandrels. Rifling (internal spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can be
made by this process.
work
mandrel
The motorized spindle (4) is slotted,
in order to hold the backers (3) and
the dies (5). The spindle passes the
backers over the rollers (2), thus
delivering a blow to the dies. In
rotary swaging process, the head (1)
is fixed.
screwdrivers, furniture legs, tapered bars and tubes
 References

http://www.mechlook.com

http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com

http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/forging_hammers.html