CHAPTE

2
Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Section 2.3 Set Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Intersection and Union of Sets

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Intersection and Union of Sets
In this section we define the set operations intersection and
union. In everyday usage, the word “intersection” refers to
the common region where two streets cross. The
intersection of two sets is defined in a similar manner.

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Intersection and Union of Sets
In the below figure, the region shown in blue represents the
intersection of sets A and B.

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Example 1 – Find Intersections
Let , , and .
Find a. b.

Solution:
a. The elements common to A and B are 4 and 5.

b. Sets A and C have no common elements.

Thus .
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Intersection and Union of Sets
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
The sets A and C in Example 1b are disjoint. The Venn
diagram below illustrates two disjoint sets.

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Intersection and Union of Sets
In everyday usage, the word “union” refers to the act of
uniting or joining together. The union of two sets has a
similar meaning.

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Intersection and Union of Sets
In the figure below, the region shown in blue represents the
union of sets A and B.

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Example 2 – Find Unions
Let , , and . Find

a. b.

Solution:
a. List all the elements of set A, which are 1, 4, 5, and 7.
Then add to your list the elements of set B that have not
already been listed—in this case 2, 3, and 6. Enclose all
elements with a pair of braces. Thus

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b.

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Intersection and Union of Sets
In mathematical problems that involve sets, the word “and”
is interpreted to mean intersection. For instance, the
phrase “the elements of A and B” means the elements of
. Similarly, the word “or” is interpreted to mean
union. The phrase “the elements of A or B” means the
elements of .

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Example 3 – Describe Sets
Write a sentence that describes the set.

a. b.

Solution:
a. The set can be described as “the set of all
elements that are in A, or are in B and C.”

b. The set can be described as “the set of all

elements that are in J and are not in K.”

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Venn Diagrams and Equality
of Sets

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Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.1 shows the four regions
formed by two intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the four possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and two sets A
and B.

Venn diagram for two

intersecting sets, in a universal
set U.
Figure 2.1
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Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
An element of U:
• may be an element of both A and B. Region i
• may be an element of A, but not B. Region ii
• may be an element of B, but not A. Region iii
• may not be an element of either A or B. Region iv
We can use Figure 2.1 to determine whether two
expressions that involve two sets are equal. For instance,
to determine whether and are equal for all
sets A and B, we find what region or regions each of the
expressions represents in Figure 2.1.

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Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
• If both expressions are represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are equal for all sets A
and B.
• If both expressions are not represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are not equal for all
sets A and B.

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Example 4 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets A and B.
Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1, represented by

, first determine the region(s) that are represented

by .

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1 that are

represented by .

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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are both represented

by region iv in Figure 2.1.

Venn diagram for two

intersecting sets, in a universal
set U.
Figure 2.1

Thus for all sets A and B.

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Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The properties that were verified in Example 4 are known
as De Morgan’s laws.

De Morgan’s law can be stated as “the

complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of
the complements of the sets.” De Morgan’s law
can be stated as “the complement of the
intersection of two sets is the union of the complements of
the sets.”
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Venn Diagrams Involving
Three Sets

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Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the eight regions
formed by three intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the eight possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and three sets A,
B, and C.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
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Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets

An element of U:
• may be an element of A, B, and C. Region i
• may be an element of A and B, but not C. Region ii
• may be an element of B and C, but not A. Region iii
• may be an element of A and C, but not B. Region iv
• may be an element of A, but not B or C. Region v
• may be an element of B, but not A or C. Region vi
• may be an element of C, but not A or B. Region vii
• may not be an element of A, B, or C. Region viii

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Example 5 – Determine Regions that Represent Sets

Use Figure 2.2 to answer each of the following.

a. Which regions represent ?
b. Which regions represent ?
c. Which regions represent ?

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
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Example 5 – Solution
a. is represented by all the regions
common to circles A and C. Thus
is represented by regions i
and iv.

b. is represented by all the regions

obtained by joining the regions in circle
A (i, ii, iv, v) and the regions in circle
C (i, iii, iv, vii). Thus is represented
by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.

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Example 5 – Solution cont’d

c. is represented by all the regions

common to circle A and the regions that
are not in circle B. Thus is
represented by regions iv and v.

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Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
In Example 6, we use Figure 2.2 to determine whether two
expressions that involve three sets are equal.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

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Example 6 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets
A, B, and C.

Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 represented by

, we join the regions in A and the regions in

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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 that are

represented by .

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are not

represented by the same regions.

Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

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Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
Venn diagrams can be used to verify each of the following
properties.
Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

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Application: Blood Groups and
Blood Types

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Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Karl Landsteiner won a Nobel Prize in 1930 for his

discovery of the four different human blood groups.
He discovered that the blood of each individual contains
exactly one of the following combinations of antigens.
• Only A antigens (blood group A)
• Only B antigens (blood group B)
• Both A and B antigens (blood group AB)
• No A antigens and no B antigens (blood group O)

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Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

These four blood groups are represented by the following

Venn diagram.

The four blood groups

In 1941, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered that

human blood may or may not contain an Rh, or rhesus,
factor. Blood with this factor is called Rh-positive and is
denoted by Rh+.
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Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Blood without this factor is called Rh-negative and is

denoted by Rh–.

The Venn diagram in Figure 2.3 illustrates the eight blood

types (A+, B+, AB+, O+, A–, B–, AB–, O–) that are possible
if we consider antigens and the Rh factor.

The eight blood types

Figure 2.3
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Example 7 – Venn Diagrams and Blood Type

Use the Venn diagrams in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 to determine

the blood type of each of the following people.
a. Sue b. Lisa

Solution:
a. Because Sue is in blood group A,
not in blood group B, and not Rh+,
her blood type is A–.
Figure 2.4

b. Lisa is in blood group O and she is

Rh+, so her blood type is O+.

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