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Mathematics in the
Modern World
( GE 104 )

Giena L. Odicta, Ph D
Course Facilitator
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PATTERNS IN NATURE

Module Title: MMW Module

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Course Title: Mathematics in the Modern World

Course Number: GE 104

Course Description:
Mathematics in the Modern World is about mathematics as a system of knowing or understanding our
surroundings. The course begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration
of patterns (in nature and in environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive reasoning.
By exploring these topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding of
mathematics as merely a bunch of formulas but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature, for
example, and rich language in itself (and of Science) governed by logic and reasoning.
The course then proceeds to the language of sets, in which for most mathematical purposes we
can think intuitively of set simply as a collection of elements. The course then proceeds to problem
solving. Most occupation requires a good problem-solving skills. The goal of problem solving is to help
students become a better problem solver and to demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable
experience. The course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool for
understanding and dealing with various aspects of present day living, such as managing personal
finances, making social choices, understanding codes used in data transmission and security, and
dividing limited resources fairly. These aspects will provide opportunities for actually doing
mathematics in a broad range of exercises that bring out the various dimensions of mathematics as a
way of knowing, and test the students’ understanding and capacity.
Total Learning Time: 3hrs per week for 18 weeks
Pre-requisites: None Overview:
The first part discusses about the nature of mathematics and its relation to our day to day activities. It
is then followed by patterns in nature such as Fibonacci sequence, arithmetic, geometric and harmonic
sequence and series. The concept of sets, sets and set operations and Venn diagrams are discussed, and
how to solve problems involving sets using Venn diagram are given importance. How to solve routine
and non-routine problem are discussed and Polya’s Four-steps in problem solving are given emphasis.
This module also discusses mathematics of finance such as simple and compound interest, credit cards,
bonds and stocks to teach students how to manage their personal finances. The last part is about
understanding codes used in data transmission and security.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students/participants would be able to:
1. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.
2. Discuss and argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is now, how it is expressed, represented,
and used. Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
3. Identify patterns in numbers such as Fibonacci sequence, arithmetic and geometric sequence and
series. 4. Perform the operations on sets. Union and Intersection. Difference and multiplication.
Complement of a
set. Illustrate solving problems on sets through Venn Diagram Solve problems on sets with
precision and accuracy.
5. Solved routine following Polya’s Four Steps. Solve non-routine problems applying the different
strategies. 6. Organized one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problem.
7. Use mathematics in other areas such as finance and business, codes and coding schemes.
8. Appreciate the nature and uses of mathematics in everyday life.
9. Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to various human endeavors.
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Indicative Content:

• Sequence and Series Arithmetic Sequence

Arithmetic Series
Geometric Sequence
Geometric Series
Harmonic Sequence
Fibonacci Sequence
• Set Theory
Basic Concept of Sets
Sets and Sets Operations
Venn Diagram
Problem solving involving sets Using Venn Diagram
• Problem Solving
Routine
- Polya’s Problem solving strategy Non-routine
- Make a table or an organized list
- Draw a diagram, picture or model
- Guess and check
- Logical reasoning or elimination
- Act out
- Find a pattern
- Work backward
• Mathematics of Finance Simple and Compound Interest
Credit Cards and Consumer Loans
Stocks, Bonds and Mutual Funds
Home Ownership
• Mathematical Systems
Modular Arithmetic
Application of Modular Arithmetic

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Introduction and Information

In our study of series and sequences of numbers, we find out that they are related to each
other in a definite way.
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This chapter discusses the concepts, principles and applications of the sequences and
series of numbers, namely, the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic sequences.

Sequences

In general, a sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. This
sequence which is composed of elements or terms is also known as progression. The
indicated sum of the elements or terms of a sequence is called a series.

When we deal with sequences such as 2, 4, 6, 8, ... and 1, 25, 49, 73, ..., we go
through the set of counting or natural numbers, taking in the numbers that are part of the
sequences and skip the numbers that do not belong to the sequences. These 2 sets of
numbers above are examples of sequences or progressions. These are sequences because
they are succession of numbers arranged in a definite order such that each number is
derived from the preceding numbers according to a fixed rule. Hence, the indicated sum of
these sequences, 2+4+6+8+... and 1+25+49+73... are called series. A sequence is finite when
the last term is given and infinite when the first few terms are given followed by series of
dots indicating that there are indefinite numbers of terms following the last number based
on the set pattern.

To determine the other elements or terms of a series by which they are obtained, we
shall discover the rule or law upon which they are based. The rule or law is usually
determined by examining or analyzing the first few elements or terms of the sequences.

Examples for Oral Exercise

Determine the following whether they are finite or infinite sequences. Discover the
pattern and add 3 more terms for each of the sequences.

1. 3, 7, 11, 15

2. 4, 12, 36, 108, ...

3. 5,10,15,20

4. 5,10,20,40

5. 0.3, 0.003, 0.0003, ...

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Solutions for the above examples/exercises are not presented here to encourage the readers
to discover for themselves the rules or laws that will establish the patterns of the sequences.

Let us consider the function f(n) = 2𝑛2 + 1. The domain of the function f(n) can assume any
element of the set of natural numbers 1,2,3,4,... The corresponding values of the function
for f(1), f(2), f(3),..., constitute the range of the function which is the sequence itself, as
shown below:

f(x) = 2𝑥2 + 1

f(1) = 2(1)2 + 1= 3

f(2) = 2(2)2 + 1 = 9

f(3) = 2(3)2 + 1 = 19

Hence, the derived sequence from the rule f(n) = 2𝑛2+ 1 is 3,9,19,... This can also be
stated that the sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers and the
range is composed of the elements of the set of real numbers.

Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which the difference between any consecutive

two terms is constant. The constant is called the common difference denoted by d.

The following sequences are examples of arithmetic sequences whose common

difference, d, are shown below.

1. 2, 5, 8, 11, ...; d = 3

2. 27, 22, 17, 12, ...; d = 5

3. -4, 0, 4, 8, ...; d = 4

4. 100, 91, 82, 73, ...; d =-9

The Last Term of an Arithmetic Sequence

If 𝑎, 𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3, 𝑎4, 𝑎5, … 𝑎𝑛 are the terms of the arithmetic sequence, then:

𝑎2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑

𝑎3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑

𝑎4 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 3𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 3d
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𝑎5 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 4𝑑

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑+, … , +𝑑 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Hence, the formula for finding the last term (an) of an arithmetic sequence is

𝑎𝑛= 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Examples:

1. Find the tenth term (𝑎10) of 2, 9, 16, ...

Solution:

The given are:

𝑎1= 2, d = 7 and n = 10

To find the 10th term, we shall have:

𝑎10= 2 + [(10 – 1) (7)]

= 2 + [(9) (7)]

= 2 + 63

𝑎10= 65

Therefore, the tenth term is 65.

2. In the sequence 10, 6, 2, ... which term is -46?

Solution

The given are:

A = 10, an = -46 and d = 4

To find which term is -46, we have:

an = a1 + (n - 1)d

-46 = 10 + (n – 1) (-4)

-46 = 10 – 4n + 4

n = 15
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Hence, -46 is the 15th term.

3. Given: x, 2x - 1, 𝑥2 − 6. Find the value of x and the sequence.

Solution:

Since the differences between any consecutive two terms are equal then, we shall
have:

(2x – 1) – x = (𝑥2 – 6) - (2x – 1)

X – 1 =𝑥2 - 2x – 5

𝑥2 – 3x – 4 = 0

(𝑥2 – 4)(x + 1) = 0

X = 4 or x = -1

The values of x are 4 and -1.

Therefore, when x = 4, the sequence is 4, 7, 10, ...

when x = -1, the sequence is -1, -3, -5, ...

4. Find the 24th term of the series -5,-2, 1, ...

Solution:

The given are:

a1 = -5, d =3 and n = 24

To find the 24th term, we shall have:

a24 = a1 + (n – 1)d

a24 = -5 + (24 – 1)3

a24 = -5 + (23) • (3)

a24 = 64

Hence, the 24th term of the series is 64

Arithmetic Means

The terms between any two terms of an arithmetic sequence are known as
arithmetic means
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Example
Insert 5 arithmetic means in the sequence 4, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, 28.
Solution:

The given are: 𝑎1 = 4, 𝑎7 = 28 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 7 To find d,

we shall have:

28= 4+ (7 – 1)d

24 = 6d

d=4

Solving the arithmetic means, we obtain:

𝑎2 = 4 + 4 = 8

𝑎3 = 8 + 4 = 12

𝑎4 = 12 + 4 = 16

𝑎5 = 16 + 4 = 20

𝑎6 = 20 + 4 = 24

Hence, the arithmetic means in the sequence are, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24.

Arithmetic Series

Arithmetic series is the indicated sum of the arithmetic sequence. Thus, 3 + 13 + 18

+, ... Is an arithmetic series.

Derivation of the formula

S = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) +, …, + (l – 2d) + (l – 2d) + 1

S = 1 + (l – d) + (1 - 2d) +, …, + (a + 2d) + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a

2S = (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) +, …, + (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) Since
there are n terms in the series, 25 = n (a + l), then the sum of an arithmetic
sequence shall be obtained by using the following formula:

𝑛
S = (a1 +an)
2

When the first and last terms are given.

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Substituting l = 𝑎1 + (n – 1)d in the above formula, we shall then have:

𝑛
𝑆= {𝑎1 + 𝑎1 + (n – 1) d}
2

𝑛
𝑆= {2𝑎1 + (n – 1) d}
2

Therefore, when the first term, the difference between terms, and number of terms
of a given sequence are given, we shall be able to obtain the sum of an arithmetic sequence
by using the above formula.

Examples:

1. Find the sum of the arithmetic sequence where 𝑎1= 36 and 𝑎9 = 2.

Solution:

The given are:

𝑎1 = 36, 𝑎9 = 2 and n=9

To find S, we have:

S = (36 + 2)
S = 171

Hence, the sum of the arithmetic sequence = 171.

2. Find the sum of the first ten terms of 4, 1,-2, ...

Solution:

The given are:

𝑎1= 4, d = -3 and n = 10

To find S, we obtain:

S= {2(4) + (10 – 1)(-3)}

S = -95

Hence, the sum of the first ten terms is -95.

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3. The sum of three consecutive terms of an arithmetic sequence is 60. The third term is
seven times the first. Find the sequence.

Solution: Represent the first 3 consecutive terms.

Let 𝑎1= the first terms

𝑎1 + d = the second term

𝑎1 + 2d = the third term

Hence, the formula is:

𝑎1 + 2d = 7𝑎1

Solving for d, we shall obtain:

d = 3𝑎1
𝑛
Since S = 60 and using S = {2a+ (n – 1)d}, we have:
2

60 = {2a+ (3 – 1)(3𝑎1)}
120 = 3{2𝑎1 + 6𝑎1}

120 = 24𝑎1

𝑎1 = 5
The first three consecutive terms are:

𝑎1 = 5, first term

𝑎1 + d = 5 + 15 = 20, second term

𝑎1 + 2d = 5 + 30 = 35, third term

Therefore, the sequence is 5, 20, 35, ...

4. How many terms of the series 20, 17, 14, ... will obtain a sum of 70?

Solution:

The given are:

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S = 70, 𝑎1= 20 and d = 17-20 = -3

Substituting the values in the formula to solve n, we have:

𝑛
70 = [2(20) + (𝑛 − 1)(−3)]
2

140 = n(40 – 3n + 3)

140 = 40n – 3𝑛2 + 3n

3𝑛2 – 43n + 140 = 0

(3n – 28)(n – 5) = 0
n–5=0
n=5
Therefore, the sum of the first 5 terms, 20, 17, 14, 11 and 8, will result to 70.

Geometric Sequence

If each term of a series is determined by multiplying the preceding term by the same fixed
quantity, the series is called a geometric sequence or geometric progression.
𝑎𝑛
Therefore, a sequence 𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3,…, 𝑎𝑛 such that the ratio 𝑎 𝑛−1 is a fixed quantity or

constant is a geometric progression. This fixed quantity or constant is called the common

ratio, denoted by r.

In symbols, the terms of a geometric sequence may be represented, as follows:

𝑎1 = first term

𝑎2 = 𝑎1 𝑟, Second term

𝑎3 = (𝑎1 𝑟) 𝑟 = 𝑟2, third term

𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑎1𝑟𝑛− 2 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑡ℎ term

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 ∙ 𝑟𝑛−1 The nth term of a geometric sequence.

Examples:
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1. Find the common ratio of the following geometric sequences:

a. 2, 4, 8, ...

Solution:

The given are: 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎3 = 8

Solving for r, we have:

r= 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎2 = 4 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑎3 = =2
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎1 2 𝑎2

Hence, the common ratio is 2.

b. ,…

Solution:

The given are:

𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎

Solving for r, we obtain.

r= 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎3
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎1 √5 𝑎2

Therefore, the common ratio is .

2. Find the 6th term of the following geometric sequence 8, 16, 32, ...

Solution:

The given terms are:

a1 = 8, a2 = 16 and a3 = 32

Solving r, we obtain:

r = a2 = = 2 or = a3 = = 2
a1a2
Solving n by substituting the values in the formula, we have:

an = a1 rn−1

a6 = 8(2)6−1
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= 8(32)

a6 = 256

Therefore, the 6th term of the sequence is 256.

3. The 4th term of a geometric sequence is 108 and its 7th term is 2,916. Find its common
ratio.

Solution:

The given are: a4 = 108 and a7 = 2,916

Solving the first r, we have:

an = a1 rn−1

a6 = a1 r3 and a7 = a1 r6

Since a1 r3 = 108 and a1 r6 = 2,916, then:

aa1rr63 3 = 108 = 27 = r
1

r3 = 27

r=3

Hence, the common ratio is 3.

4. In the geometric sequence 6, 12, 24, ..., which term is 384?

Solution:

The given are:

a1 = 6 and an = 384

Solving for r, we have:

r== an = a2 = 12 =2
an−1 a1 6

Then,

an = a1 rn−1
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384 = 6(2)n−1

2n−1 =
2n−1 = 64

2n−1 = 26

n−1=6 n=7
Therefore, 384 is the 7th term of the sequence.

Geometric Means

In the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32, the terms 4, 8 and 16 are the three geometric
means between 2 and 16. The terms between two given terms in a geometric sequence are
called geometric means .

Example.

1. Insert two geometric means between 7 and 875.

Solution:
There are 4 terms in the given sequence:
7, ______, _______, 875

First find r using the formula: 𝑎4 = 𝑎1𝑟4−1

875 = 7𝑟3
125 = 𝑟3
5=r
To complete the sequence, multiply 7 by 5, and then multiply the result by 5.
Therefore, the required geometric means are 35 and 175.

2. Find the 4 geometric means between − and − .

Solution:

The given are:

a1 = − and a1 = −

Solving for r, we have:

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an = a1 rn−1

ab = a1 r5

r = r

Hence, we shall have:

a2 = − ( ) = −

12 a3 = −(2) = −() =

13 a4 = −(2) = −() =

14 a5 = −(2) = −() =

Therefore, the 4 geometric means are:

− ,− ,− , and −

Sum of a Geometric Sequence

The indicated sum of the terms of a geometric series is a geometric sequence.

The formula for the sum of a geometric sequence is derived by adding the first n
terms of 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3+, … , + 𝑎𝑛, multiplying both sides of the equation by r, then
subtracting the result from the equation𝑆𝑛, to obtain the following formula:

𝑆𝑛 =𝑎1 − 𝑎1𝑟𝑛 𝑎1(1 − 𝑟𝑛)

, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 ≠ 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 =
1−𝑟 𝑛 1−𝑟
𝑎1(𝑟𝑛−1)

𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 ≠ 1
Examples:

1. Find the sum of the first 7 terms of a geometric sequence whose first 3 terms are
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4, 8, 12, ...

Solution:

The given are:

𝑎1= 4 and n = 7

𝑎2
We shall obtain r by = = =2
𝑎1

Substituting the values in the formula, we shall have:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 1(1𝑟−𝑛𝑟−1)

𝑆7 = 4(27 − 1)

𝑆7 = 4(128 − 1)

𝑆7 = 508

Therefore, the sum of the first 7 terms is 508.

2. Find the sum of 3 + 6 + 12 +, ..., + 768.

Solution:

The given is 𝑎1= 3 and the common ratio is = 2.

Substituting the values in the formula, we shall obtain:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑟𝑟− −1𝑎1

=
= 1, 533
Hence, the sum of the sequence is 1, 533.
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Harmonic Sequence

Harmonic sequence is a sequence where the reciprocals of the term form an

arithmetic sequence. This type of sequence, therefore, is neither an arithmetic sequence nor
a geometric sequence. For instance, if we get the reciprocals of the arithmetic sequence
1 1
5, 7, 9, 11, ..., we shall have a harmonic sequence whose terms are , ,,...
5 7

To find the nth term of a harmonic sequence, we shall find the set of reciprocals of the
arithmetic sequence. Then, find the nth term of the arithmetic sequence and get its
reciprocals.

Example:

13 5
1. Find the 7th term of the harmonic sequence , , , …
22 2

Solution:

The arithmetic sequence is 2, 4, 6, ...

Hence, 𝑎1 = 2 and d = 4 – 2 = 2

To find 𝑎7, we shall have:

𝑎7 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

= 2 + (7 − 1)2

𝑎7 = 14 Therefore, the 7th term is .

2. What are the 3 harmonic means between and

Solution:

The arithmetic sequence has 𝑎1 = 4, 𝑎5 = 16 and n = 5

Solving d, we have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (n – 1)d

16 = 4 + (5 – 1)d

16 = 4 + 4d ; d=3
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Solving the 3 arithmetic means between 4 and 16, we shall obtain:

𝑎2= 4 + 3 = 7

𝑎3 = 7 + 3 = 10

𝑎4 = 10 + 3 = 13

1 1
Thus, the 3 harmonic means between and are ,
and . 7 10

Exercises

I. Determine whether or not each of the following is an arithmetic sequence. Explain.

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1. 3, 5, 7, ... 2. 2, , , , …
3. 3, 7, 11, 15, ...
4. -5, -2.5, 0, 2, 5, …
5. 1.5, 4.5, 7.5, 10.5, …
Arithmetic Sequence

A. For each of the following arithmetic sequences, find a) the common difference;
b) the equation of the indicated nth term; c) the value of the nth term.

1. 3, 10, 17, …, 8th term

2. 1, 5, 9, …, 12th term

3. -6, -3, 0, …, 9th term

4. -4, -3 , -2, … 18th term

5. 16, 11, 6, …, 10th term

B. Solve as indicated. Use a separate sheet of paper, if necessary.

1. In the arithmetic sequence -8,-6,-5,..., which term is 8?

2. Which term of the sequence 2.4,3.6,4.8,..., is 20.4?

3. Which term of the sequence 5,3,1,-1,..., is -36?
1 5 9
4. In , , , …, which nth term is ?
2 2 2

5. In 5𝑥 − 𝑦, 3𝑥 + 𝑦, 3𝑦, …, which nth term is −5𝑥 + 9𝑦?

C. Solve as indicated.

1. Find the first 11 terms of an arithmetic sequence in which the third term is 10 and
the eleventh term is 42.

2. Find the first 10 terms of a sequence in which the fourth term is 114 and the ninth term is
34.

3. The fifth term of a sequence is 18 and its eighth term is 30. Find its first term.
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4. Find the first five terms of the sequence in which the sixth term is 47 and twelfth term is 77.
5. Find the first six terms of the sequence in which the eighth term is 72 and twelfth term is

96.

D. Solve as indicated.

1. Insert 4 arithmetic means between 24 and 56.

2. Insert 5 arithmetic means between 2 and 38.

3. Insert 3 arithmetic means between and 1.

4. Insert 5 arithmetic means between 2x + 1 and 7x + 11.
5. Insert 5 arithmetic means between -10 and 15.

Sum of Arithmetic Sequence

Solve as indicated.
1. Find the sum of the arithmetic series in which:

a. 𝑎1 = −6, 𝑛 = 12, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 l = 72

b. 𝑎 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 l

c. 𝑎1 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦, 𝑛 = 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 l= 12𝑥 + 5𝑦

d. 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 l

2. Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the series 2, 5, 8, ...

3. Find the sum of the first 9 terms of the series ,…

4. Find the next 5 terms of the series 7, 2,-3,...

5. Find the sum of the first 8 terms of ,…

Geometric Sequence
A. Find the indicated terms of the following geometric sequences.

1. 12, 6, 18, ... 5th term

2. 2, 4, 8, ... 10th term

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3. 5, -10, 20, ...7th term

4. 3, 6, 12, ...20th term

5. 1/3, 1, 3, ...8th term

B. Solve as indicated.

1. Find the geometric mean of 28 and 112.

2. Find the geometric mean of 7 and 175.
3. Insert four geometric means between 4 and 972.
4. Insert three geometric means between 2 and 162.

5. Insert four geometric means between and . C. Solve as indicated.

1. How many terms are there in an arithmetic sequence where 𝑎1 = 12, 𝑎𝑛 = 60 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑
= 8?

2. The third term of an arithmetic sequence is x and 𝑎6 = 19𝑥 + 6. Find the twelfth term.
3. Php 120,000 is deposited in a savings bank that earns 9% simple interest per year.
What will be the amount at the end of the fifth year?

4. A car costs Php 800,000. Find its value after 4 years if it depreciates 20% of its cost per
year.
5. How many integers divisible by 5 are there between 8 and 118?

Harmonic Sequence
Solve the following harmonic sequences.

1. What is the ninth term of a harmonic sequence if the first three terms are , , ,
…?

2. Find the harmonic mean of and .

3. Find the eighth term of the harmonic sequence , , , … , ?

4. What is the sixth term of the harmonic sequence , , ,…,?

5. If the third of a harmonic sequence is and its ninth term is , find its second term.
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SET AND SETS OPERATIONS

Introduction and Information

What is a set? It is simply a collection or aggregate of anything - objects, ideas,

perceptions, etc. Examples if sets are: collection of foreign and local stamps, type of
fingers, opinions of students on a certain issue, breed of dogs, and natural numbers
between 5 and 20.

Between 1874 and 1897, a German mathematician and logician, George Cantor,
studied the basic notation and importance of sets in mathematics and created a theory
of abstract sets of entities and made it into a mathematical discipline.

Why are sets important in mathematics? The use of sets in elementary mathematics
clarifies certain ideas, simplifies complicated concepts, and unifies studies of related
concepts in the different branches of mathematics such as those in Graph and Number
Theories, Abstract Algebra, Real and Complex Analyses, and Linear Algebra.

Sets and Set Concepts

A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite and distinct objects of our
perceptions and thoughts, called elements.

In mathematics, a collection of elements (or members) is called a set. The symbol ∈

is used to identify the elements of the set. The pair of brace symbols { ] are used to
enclose the elements of the set. Capital letters of the English alphabet are usually used
to name sets, while the small letters are used to name the elements. Thus, if a is an
element and A is the set, we shall write 𝛼 ∈ Α. For instance if A is composed of the set
of even numbers between O and 10, then we shall write A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

An infinite set contains an infinite number of elements. For example, the set of
counting numbers, denotes by {1, 2, 3, ...} is an infinite set. A finite set contains an
indefinite number of elements, i.e, either O or a counting number. The set of natural
numbers from 4 to 9 is a finite set and can be written {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

A set with no elements or members is called a null or empty set, denoted by Ø or {}.
 24

The set of counting numbers from 2 to 4 divided by 5 and the set of whole numbers
having negative signs are example of null or empty set. The {Ø} is not a null or empty set
since it has an element Ø.

The Venn Diagram often used to illustrate a set and its subsets. A rectangle
represents the universal set, designated by U, that consists of all elements under
consideration. Sets inside the rectangle are subsets of the universal set.

If we consider the set of positive integers greater than 0 as the universal set, then we
have

U = {positive integers greater than 0} or

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ...}

Set A is a subset (⊂) of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if the elements of A belong also to

B. If set C is a subset but not equal to set A, then C us called a proper subset of A. To
illustrate, let us consider the following sets:

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ...}

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10 ...}

B = {4, 6}

C = {3, 6, 9}

Set B is a proper subset of set A(B⊂A) since all elements of B are also elements of A.
Set C is not a subset of set A since 2 elements (3 and 9) of C do not belong to A.

A set is a subset of itself (A ⊂A) and an empty set { } or Ø is a subset of any set.

Two sets, A and B, are disjoint if they have no common elements or region. Two sets,
A and B, are joint sets if they have common elements or region.
 25

A pictorial representation in dealing with relations between and among sets, is shown
below.

U
U
ABYFH
B A
A⊂B A B

A B; B A
(A is a subset of B) (A and B are joint sets; A is not a subset of B and B is
not a subset of A; and A and B
are disjoint set.

A B
A
B
U C

A B; B A A B A
(A and B are joint sets; A is not a subset of B and (A and B are subsets of C)
B is not a subset of A; and A is not disjoint from B)

Two or more sets are equal if they have the same elements. For example, A = B if A = {2,
4, 6, 8, 10} and B is the set of even numbers from 2 to 10.

Two or more sets are equivalent, if the sets have the same number of elements.

A ↔ B if A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {2, 5, 6, 10, 12} since both A and B have each 5
elements.

Set Notations

There are three (3) convenient ways/methods of describing and specifying the
members of a set. These are the roster method, rule method, and set builder
notation method.
 26

The roster method lists and encloses the elements with { } in any order.
Examples: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {thumb, index, middle, ring, pinky}.

The rule method gives a descriptive phrase to identify the elements of the set. For
examples, C = {positive integers from 1 to 10}, D = {the five types of finger} and E {eight
smallest integers that are less than perfect squares}.

The set builder notation method has the from {x : Ø (x)} or {x |Ø (x)}. Examples of sets in
set builder notations are:

F= (𝑛2 − 4 ∶ 𝑛 is an integer, and 0 ≤ n ≤ 10)

G = {x | x is an even number between 1 and 10}

Set G is read "the set of all x such that x is an even number between 1 and 10".
The symbols ": and | " are read "such that".
Operations and Sets
Two or more sets are combined by the operations of union and intersection of sets.

The union (U) of set A and set B, denoted by A U B, is the set of elements that belong to
either A or B or to both A and B.

The intersection (⋂) of set A and B, denoted by A ⋂ B is the set of elements which belong or
common to both A and B.
A pictorial illustration of the concepts of the union and intersections of sets is shown below.

AUB A∩B
(A union B) (A intersection B)
Examples:

Given:

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

B = {4, 8}
 27

C = {3, 5, 8, 9}

Find:

1. A C 5. A B C

2. A B 6. (A B) U C
3. A U B 7. (A U C) B
4. A U B U C
Solutions:

1. A U C

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} U {3, 5, 8, 9}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}
2. A B

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} {4, 8}

= {4, 8}
3. A U B

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} U {4, 8}

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Note that the elements of A U B = A
4. A U B U C

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} A U C) U {4, 8} U {3, 5, 8, 9}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}
5. A B C
= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} A U C) {4, 8} U {3, 5, 8, 9}
= {8}
6. (A B) U C
= ({2, 4, 6, 8, 10} {4, 8}) U {3, 5, 8, 9}

= {4, 8} U {3, 5, 8, 9}
= {3, 5, 8, 9}

7. (A U C) B
 28

= ({2, 4, 6, 8, 10} U {3, 5, 8, 9}) {4, 8}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10} {4, 8}

{4, 8}

Complement of a Set

For every set A, there exists A', the complement of A, that contains all the elements
of the Universal set (U) that are not in A.

To illustrate, the shaded region in the Venn diagram below represents the
complement of A or A'.

For examples, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}, A" = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...} and B={1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...}
then A' = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...} and B' = {2 , 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...}. Similarly, (A U
B)’ = Ø or empty set and (A Ù 😎' = U or U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}

Cartesian Product

A new set is formed by associating every element of a set with every element
of another set. Thus, the cartesian product of set A and C, denoted by A x C id the set
of all ordered pairs (a, c) such that a is an element of A and c is an element of C.

Examples:

If U ={1,2,3,4,5,6}, A = {2,4,6} and C ={4,8}, then the cartesian product of A and

C or A x C = {(2, 4), (2,8), (4, 4), (4, 8), (6, 4), (6, 8)}.
 29

Problem Solving Using Venn Diagram

In a certain university, 73 students are enrolled in 3 different subjects, as follows:

33 are enrolled in English

32 are enrolled in Filipino

36 are enrolled in Mathematics

12 are enrolled in both English and Mathematics

14 are enrolled in both Filipino and Mathematics

13 are enrolled in both English and Filipino

5 are enrolled in all 3 subjects.

How many students are enrolled in:

1. English subject only?

2. Filipino subject only?

3. Mathematics subject only?

4. Both English and Filipino subjects?

5. Neither Filipino nor Mathematics subject?

6. How many students are not enrolled in any of the 3 subjects?
English Filipino

13 8 10

5
6 7 9

15

Mathematics

Exercises
 30

Set Concepts

A. List the elements of each set.

1. Set of all integers greater than 2 but lesser than 12.

2. Set of all integers between 6 and 18.

3. Set of women presidents of the Philippines after 1985.

4. Set of months of the year.

5. Set of counting numbers divisible by 7 between 1 and 100.

B. Tell whether each statement is true or false.

1. 4 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8}

2. 3 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8}

3. 14 ∈ {3, 6, 9, 12, ...} 4. 7 ∉ {2, 4, 6, 8}

5. 18 ∉ {3, 6, 9, 12, ...}

Consider the following sets:

U = {set of integers}
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} B ={4, 8, 12, 16}
C = {3, 6, 9, 12} D ={1, 2, 3}
E ={3, 9} F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A. Tell whether each statement is true or false.

1. A ⊂ U
 31

2. A ⊂ C

3. D A

4. D B

5. Ø A

B. Determine the number of subsets of the following sets:

1. C

2. E

3. D

C. List the subsets of the following sets:

4. D

5. E

Set Notations

A. Write in Roster Form:

1. The set of whole numbers (W) from 25 to 25

2. The set of integers (I) divisible by 6 between 7 and 49.

3. The set of integers divisible by 5 between 100 and 155.

B. Write in Set-builder Notation

4. The set of all positive real numbers

5. The set of rational numbers

 32

Operations on Sets

Consider the following sets.

A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} B = {4, 8, 12, 16}

C = {3, 6, 9, 12} D = {1, 2, 3}

E = {3, 9} F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A. Perform the indicated operations on sets.

1. A U B
2. A D

3. A U C U D

4. A U C U E

5. A C F

B. Illustrate the following in Venn Diagram:

1. A'

2. B U E
 33

3. F D

4. (A U E) F

5. A U (E F)

Word Problems Using Venn Diagram.

Solve the following problems using a Venn Diagram.
1. In a group of 50 students, 18 are taking Literature and 29 are taking Statistics If 8 are
taking both Literature and Statistics, how many students are:

a. taking Literature only?

b. taking Statistics only?

c. not taking Literature nor Statistics?

2. In a certain university 2,191 students are enrolled in its College of Arts and Sciences.
980 are male students while 758 are female students. Of the male students, 99 are club
members, while only 48 of the female are club members. Using sets and Venn Diagram,
determine the number of:
 34

a. Male students who are not club members.

b. Female students who are not club members.

C. Either male or female students and who are not club members.
3. A cellphone company has 1000 employees, 615 are male, 682 are single, and 345 are
union members 485 are single male and 187 are single and union members, 120 employees
are single male and union members. Using a Venn Diagram, determine the number of
employees who are:

a. Male b. Single c. Union members

d. Male and union members e. Single union members

f. Neither male nor single and not a union member.