Enzymes

Reactions
• Most reactions take place in a number of
steps which need to be carefully controlled
if the cell is to function properly

• Enzymes are the most important

controllers of cellular reactions
 Catalysts
• Catalysts speed up reactions without themselves
being involved in the reaction

• Enzymes are catalysts made of protein they

speed up a reaction without being used up
themselves in the reaction

• Because enzymes are made in living things they

are called biological (or organic catalysts)
• We learned in the chapter on food that
proteins are made when amino acids join
together
• The function of a protein is decided not
only by the sequence of amino acids but
also by the way the protein folds
• Most enzymes are globular proteins
 Learning Check
• What is an Enzyme?
• What are catalysts?
• To what group of bio-molecules do
enzymes belong?
 How enzymes work
• Enzymes are not flat they have a 3D
structure
• Each enzyme has its own specific shape that will only
“fit” the molecule that the enzyme is designed to work on
• If the enzyme that breaks starch into glucose meets a fat
molecule it will not fit it and will not be able to work on it
A movie on the action of Enzymes!
• http://www.bishopstopford.com/faculties/sc
ience/arthur/?sortby=3

• http://www.angelo.edu/faculty/nflynn/Bioch
emistry/

http://www.angelo.edu/faculty/nflynn/Biochemistry/
 Learning Check
• Why is the shape of an enzyme important?
• Are enzymes flat, 3D or 2D in shape?
 Enzyme Action
• The substance that an enzyme acts on is
its substrate

• The substance(s) that the enzyme forms is

called the product(s)
 A Catabolic enzyme
• Amylase converts starch to maltose

• Catabolic as it breaks a big molecule into

a smaller one

• It is produced by saliva glands in mouth

and by the pancreas
 An Anabolic Enzyme
• DNA Polymerase forms and repairs DNA

• Anabolic as it coverts simpler molecules

into more complex molecules

• Found in almost all living things

 Consider This
• Amylase is an enzyme found in saliva. It breaks
starch molecules into smaller maltose molecules

• What is the substrate?

• What is the product?
• Will amylase break fats into fatty acids +
glycerol? Why?
• Is this an example of a catabolic or an anabolic
reaction? Why?
 And This
• DNA Polymerase is an enzyme that builds
DNA using tiny molecules in our cells

• What is the substrate?

• What is the product?
• Will amylase build keratin out of peptides?
Why?
• Is this an example of a catabolic or an
anabolic reaction? Why?
• Enzymes work because they have the
correct shape to fit the substrate

• They have a complex 3 dimensional shape

to fit the substrate

• When enzymes and their substrates meet

and come together they form an
Enzyme/Substrate complex
 Learning Check
• What is meant by a substrate?
• What is the unit formed when an enzyme
combines with its substrate called?
• Give an example of an anabolic reaction
• Give an example of a catabolic reaction
 Reversible
• Enzyme Reactions are reversible

• Like a key can open or close a lock

enzymes can make reactions go in either
direction
 Example
• In the following example the enzyme can
break molecule X into Y+Z but it can also
combine Y+Z to form X

X Y+Z
 Learning Check
• Can enzyme reactions be reversed?
 Naming Enzymes
• Enzymes are named by adding the suffix
ase to the name of their substrate
Eg.
• Enzyme that acts on Amylose (starch) is
called amylase
• Enzymes that act on proteins are called
proteases
 Learning Check
• Can you think of a name for enzymes that
act on Lipids?

• Amazingly enough they are called

Lipases!
 Inhibitors
• Inhibitors attach to enzymes and destroy
their shape
• When this happens the enzymes are said
to be denatured
 Nerve Gases
• The nerve gases we hear of terrorists
using are often inhibitors that attach to
enzymes involved in our nerve
transmissions
Poisoning people the old fashioned
way!
• Cyanide denatures an enzyme involved in
respiration
 Beneficial Inhibitors
• Insecticides affect enzymes in insects
causing their death

• Drugs can affect enzymes involved in pain

causing the pain to stop

• Antibiotics can affect enzymes in bacteria

causing the bacteria to die
 Learning Check
• What is an inhibitor?
• How do inhibitors work?
• Can you give an example of a harmful
inhibitor?
• Can you give an example of a beneficial
inhibitor?
 Enzymes at work!
Enzymes work best in certain conditions
Factors that affect enzymes include
• Temperature
• pH
• Substrate concentration
• Enzyme concentration
We will be examining these in experiments
 Temperature
• At very low temperatures ice forms, liquids
become solids and enzymes can’t work

• As temperature increases molecules start

to move and bump into each other causing
the rate of reaction to increase
 Optimum Temperature
• Human enzymes work best at body temperature
(37°C)

• Plant Enzymes work best at 20-30 °C

• Above certain temperatures enzymes start to

lose their shape the rate of reaction falls

• When the shape is fully lost the enzyme is said

to be denatured this is usually a permanent
condition
 pH
• pH scale goes from 0 -14
• 0-7 is acidic
• 7-14 is basic (or alkaline)
 Optimum pH
• Enzymes work over a very narrow pH

• Most enzymes work at pH 6-8

• Outside this they lose shape and get

denatured

• The optimum or best ph is usually pH 7

 An Exception!
• Is our stomach acid or basic?
• Do you think there are enzymes in our
stomach?
• Pepsin is an enzyme in the stomach that
works best at pH 2!
 Learning Check
• What factors affect enzyme action?
• What is the best temperature for (a)
human enzymes and (b) plant enzymes
• What is meant by pH?
• Do enzymes work over a narrow or wide
pH range?
 Immobilised Enzymes
• Bio-processing is the use of enzyme
controlled reactions to produce a product

• Bio-processing can be used to produce a

vast range of products such as cheeses,
beer, antibiotics, vaccines, methane gas,
food flavours, vitamins and perfumes
 Bioprocessing
• Traditionally micro-organisms such as
bacteria and yeast were used but since
the 1900’s and especially since the 1950’s
enzymes are being used
 Immobilized Enzymes
• If enzymes are used freely dissolved in a vessel
it can be very wasteful as they are lost at the
end of the process

• To prevent this problem enzymes are often

immobilised or fixed

• This means they are attached to each other or

an inert substance and can be used repeatedly
 Learning Check
• What is bio-processing?
• What type of organisms are uasually used
in bio-processing?
• Why is bio-processing advantageous?
 How to immobilise enzymes
• Physical methods
• Adsorption where enzymes are
physically attached to inactive supports
such as glass beads or ceramics
• Enclosed by a membrane when
enzymes are kept within a membrane
• Trapped in a gel, sodium alginate is
commonly used this allows substrates in
and products out
• Chemical Methods

• Bonded to a support enzymes

chemically bonded to a support such as
glass beads or ceramics

• Bonded to each other Enzymes are

chemically bonded to each other
 Learning Check
• Describe 2 physical methods of
immobilising enzymes
• Describe 2 chemical methods of
immobilising enzymes
 Advantages of Immobilised
Enzymes
• Efficiency of enzyme is not affected

• Immobilised enzymes can be easily recovered

from the product so you can get a pure sample
of product easily

• Immobilised enzymes can be reused this cuts

costs

• Enzymes frequently become more stable when

immobilised
 Uses of Immobilised Enzymes
• Immobilised glucose isomerase converts
glucose to fructose which is used to
sweeten drinks
 Antibiotics
• Penicillin acylase changes the structure of
penicillin to make more antibiotics that will
fight a wider range of bacteria
 Lactose
• Lactase converts lactose to sweeter
sugars glucose and galactose which are
then used by food manufacturers
 Learning check
• What are the advantages of immobilising
enzymes?
• Can you name 3 things immobilised
enzymes are used for?
 Syllabus Can you.......
• Define the term: enzymes
• State the nature, folded shape & functions of
enzymes.
• Explain the role of enzymes in plants and
animals including role in metabolism
• Explain the effects of pH & temperature on
enzyme activity.
• State the procedure and advantages of Bio-
processing.
• State the use of Bio-processing.